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* 










































































Plumbing 


A Complete Working Manual of 

APPROVED AMERICAN PRACTICE IN THE SELECTION AND INSTALLATION 
OF PLUMBING FIXTURES AND PIPING SYSTEMS, INCLUDING THE 
ALLIED SUBJECTS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE AND MODERN 
METHODS OF SANITATION 


By WILLIAM BEALL GRAY 

Sanitary Engineer 


and 

CHARLES B. BALL 

P 

Civil and Sanitary Engineer 
Chief Sanitary Inspector, City of Chicago 


ILLUSTRATE D 


> > » 
9 3 

) > ) 

>t> > 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 
ii 1909 


, . f 




i 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
TwoCeDies Received 

JAN 13 1909 

« Oopyri^Mt entry 
OLASS <X_ XXc. No. 
odFY a, 


4 

Copyright 1908 by 

American School of Correspondence 


Entered at Stationers* Hall, London 
All Rights Reserved 








Foreword 



N recent years,-such marvelous advances have been 
made in the engineering and scientific fields, and 
so rapid has been the evolution of mechanical and 
constructive processes and methods, that a distinct 
need has been created for a series of practical 


working guides , of convenient size and low cost, embodying the 
accumulated results of experience and the most approved modern 
practice along a great variety of lines. To fill this acknowledged 
need, is the special purpose of the series of handbooks to which 
this volume belongs. 

CL In the preparation of this series, it has been the aim of the pub¬ 
lishers to lay special stress on the practical side of each subject, 
as distinguished from mere theoretical or academic discussion. 
Each volume is written by a well-known expert of acknowledged 
authority in his special line, and is based on a most careful study 
of practical needs and up-to-date methods as developed under the 
conditions of actual practice in the field, the shop, the mill, the 
power house, the drafting room, the engine room, etc. 

CL These volumes are especially adapted for purposes of self- 
instruction and home study. The utmost care has been used to 
bring the treatment of each subject within the range of the com- 




mon understanding, so that the work will appeal not only to the 
technically trained expert, but also to the beginner and the self- 
taught practical man who wishes to keep abreast of modern 
progress. The language is simple and clear; heavy technical terms 
and the formulae of the higher mathematics have been avoided, 
yet without sacrificing any of the requirements of practical 
instruction; the arrangement of matter is such as to carry the 
reader along by easy steps to complete mastery of each subject; 
frequent examples for practice are given, to enable the reader to 
test his knowledge and make it a permanent possession; and the 
illustrations are selected with the greatest care to supplement and 
make, clear the references in the text. 

CL The method adopted in the preparation ofjthese volumes is that 
which the American School of Correspondence has developed and 
employed so successfully for many years. It is not an experiment, 
but has stood the severest of all tests—that of practical use—which 
has demonstrated it to be the best method yet devised for the 
education of the busy working man. 

CL For purposes of ready reference and timely information when 
needed, it is believed that this series of handbooks will be found to 
meet every requirement. 







Table of Contents 


Plumbing Fixtures . . Page 1 

Sanitary Science—Use of Lead—Modern numbing—Bathtubs (French, 
Roman, etc.)-—Tub Fittings (Supply, Waste, and Overflow)—Shower, Sitz, , 
and Foot Baths—Drinking Fountains—Lavatories—Sinks—Faucets—Sink 
Traps—AVaste Pipes—Laundry Trays—Water-Closets (Porcelain, Enameled 
Iron, etc.; Hopper and Trap; Wash-Out; Siphon, etc.)—Flush Tanks—Auto¬ 
matic Seat Action—Direct Flushing—Urinals 


House Water Supply .Page 55 

Velocity, Head, Pressure, Discharge—Systems of Supply (Direct, Indirect) — 
Automatic Regulation—Cold-Water Storage Tanks—Spring Supply—Hy¬ 
draulic Ram—Suction, Lift, and Force Pumps—Pump Operation (Gasoline 
and Hot-Air Engines; Windmills)—Hydraulic Water-Lifts—Pneumatic Sup¬ 
ply Apparatus—Washer and Hydrant—Service Pipes—Protection from Frost 
—Connections to Street Mains—Bends—Offsets—Supply Pipes to Fixtures— 
Hot-Water Storage Reservoirs—Water-Back—Range and Furnace Connec¬ 
tions—Rumbling in Reservoir—Gas Heaters—Steam Heating Coils—Hot 
Service and Circulation Pipes—Temperature Regulation—Domestic Filters— 
Water Motors—Lime and Other Deposits—Double-Reservoir Installation 


Gas Piping and Fixtures ..Page 118 

Gas Meters—Meter Reading—Piping Diagrams—Laying Gas Pipes—-Maximum 
Run of Pipe, and Number of Burners—Types of Gas Burners (Single and 
Union Jet, Bat’s Wing, Argand, etc.)—Bunsen Burner—Brazing Burner— 
Gas-Cocks—Brackets—Gasoliers—Gas-Plate—Gas Ranges—Griddle and Oven 
Burners—Broilers—Portable Heaters—Radiators—Grates—-Logs—Water Gas 
—Carburetted Air—Regulator or Mixer 


House Sanitation.. . . „ • . Page 141 

Sewage Disposal—Garden Irrigation—Cesspools—Dry-and-Wet Well—Bac¬ 
terial Action—Septic Tanks—Sewer Design and Construction—Sewer Pipe—- 
Underdrains—Manholes—Grades—Flushing Devices—House Connections— 
Ventilation—Combined and Separate Systems—Sizes, Shapes, and Materials— 
Catch-Basins—Storm Overflows—Pumping Stations—Tidal Chambers—Sew¬ 
age Purification (Septic Treatment, Chemical Precipitation, Mechanical 
Straining, Sedimentation, Land Treatment)—Sewage Farming—Intermittent 
Filtration—House Drainage—Intercepting Traps—Air Inlets and Outlets— 
Loops in Soil-Stack—Vent Pipe—Flashings—Trap Ventilation—Crown and 
Stack Ventilation—Offsetting Waste and Vent Lines—Anti-Siphoning Traps— 
Sizes of Pipes—Local Ventilation—Soil-Pipe and Fittings (Bends, Y’s, Tees, 
Nipples, Ferrules, etc.)—Soil-Pipe Joints—Closet Floor-Joints—Traps— 
Siphonage—Trap Seals (Water, Mechanical)—Loss of Trap Seals 


Tools; TestinguOrdinances, etc. Page 199 

' Drift Plug—Tampion—Expanding Device—Tap Borer—Bending Iron—Shave 
Hook—Soldering, Hatchet, and Round Irons—Wiping Cloth—Wrenches— 
Pipe-Cutter — Pipe Vise — Chain Tongs — Gasoline Furnace—Blast Torch - 
Thawing Steamer —• Wiped Joints — Calked Joints — Testing — Plumbing 
Ordinances- ' . 


INDEX 


Page 223 



COMBINED NEEDLE AND SHOWER BATH ARRANGED 

The Federal Company. 


FOR HOT AND COLD WATER. 

































































PLUMBING 

PART I 

Plumbing occupies an important position among the trades as 
an application of Sanitary Science. 

Sanitary science is defined by an eminent authority* as “that 
body of hygienic knowledge, which, having been sufficiently and 
critically examined, has been found so far as tested to be invariably 
true. Its phenomena are natural phenomena; its laws are natural 
laws; its principles are scientific principles.” 

The same authority defines the sanitary arts as “those methods 
and processes by which the applications of the principles of sanitary 
science are effected,” and would include plumbing with other practical 
arts of construction involved in sanitary engineering and architecture. 

Having thus noted the position occupied in this broad field by 
the matters under consideration, we may define plumbing as the art 
of 'placing in buildings the pipes and other apparatus used for intro¬ 
ducing the water supply and removing the foul wastes. 

Historically, the plumber is primarily one who works in lead; 
but this definition would be a misnomer applied to the handicraftsman 
of to-day. While in time past, and even within the memory and 
practice of men now working at the trade, it suited the occupation 
designated as plumbing, the term “plumber” survives the transition 
from lead to iron more by reason of established usage than from its 
fitness to indicate the workman of the present. 

Two score of years ago, traps and soil, waste, and supply pipes 
were in many localities almost wholly of lead; and much of the larger 
pipe was hand-made. Lead was then everywhere more frequently 
used for all these purposes than it is anywhere in the country now. 
To-day, first-class plumbing is possible in any type of building with¬ 
out employing a vestige of lead, and that, too, with fixtures and fittings 
regularly on the market. Lead, however, is still used to a marked 
extent in plumbing, principally for traps, pipe connections, calked 
joints, water-service pipes, tank linings, flashings, etc. Its retention 
for these secondary purposes is due generally to superior fitness; yet 

* The Principles of Sanitary Science, by Wtn. T. Sedgwick. 

Copyright, 1908, by American School of Correspondence. 




2 


PLUMBING 


in some instances it is because of the Style of connection provided on 
certain fixtures, or for other reasons independent of the merits of the 
metal. On the whole, its loss of prestige has been slow and impartial. 
Indeed, those manually skilled in the manipulation of lead have often 
opposed the adoption of other materials sufficiently to retard sub¬ 
stitution of the better. 

Lead has unequaled merit for plumbers’ use in specific instances; 
and if the trade has suffered by injudicious substitution of other 
material during its rapid evolution in recent years, time will adjust 
the error as the fitness of lead becomes apparent. For service lines 
in the ground, no other material lasts longer or gives more satis¬ 
faction than lead, provided the use of lead is safe with the particular 
water which flows through it. For cold-water lines inside buildings, 
it answers well. Wood tanks properly lined with lead are, in many 
cases, the best for indoor storage. w 

Lead pipe is not self-supporting in any position, in the sense 
that iron or brass may be considered so; and the providing of reason¬ 
ably permanent support, for lead work is an expensive item. Lead 
pipe costs more than iron or brass, in every case; and the cost increases 
proportionally with the extra weight necessary for all but very light 
pressures; while ordinary merchant’s iron pipe, or seamless brass 
pipe of iron-pipe size, will withstand the pressure of any municipal or 
private supply in America. 

Lead does not serve well for hot water. The contraction while 
cooling appears not to equal the expansion from heating; hence the 
pipe deteriorates at the hottest points, usually showing weakness 
first near the reservoir in the kitchen, especially at bends, and finally 
crystallizing beyond repair at those points. So much trouble has 
been experienced with stove and range connections of lead, that lead 
pipe for this purpose has been entirely abandoned. The wish to 
install something better suited than lead for hot-water service, is in 
large measure responsible for the general adoption of other material. 
Hot and cold supply lines that are dissimilar in material, in diameter, 
in joints, and in fastenings, are so unsymmetrical and out of harmony 
in every way that no mechanic is willing to install them for a slight 
real or fancied betterment. 

With reference to the action of frost, lead pipe has an advantage 
in that the diametrical expansion of the water when freezing does not 




PLUMBING 


3 


burst the pipe at the point frozen, unless it has been repeatedly swelled 
from the same cause. Lateral extension of the core of ice in the'' 
portion frozen, crowds the water which it cannot compress; and, as 
the ice is frozen to the wall of the pipe, the weakest place ruptures. 
Sometimes a faucet ball will be driven in, and occasionally a coupling 
collar will be stripped of its threads; but usually room is made for the 
extra volume of the water by the pipe swelling to an egg-shape and 
bursting at one point. Such a break can be repaired by wiping a 
single patch or joint on the original pipe. 

Frost breaks in lead pipe nearly always occur on the house side 
of the point frozen, because the water in the street end is easily driven 
toward the main. Air-chambers on the house service would often 
obviate the bursting of lead pipe; but where the type of faucets or a 
limited pressure does not require their use in order to prevent reaction, 
plumbers frequently omit them, under the impression that air-cham¬ 
bers can serve no other good purpose. 

With iron pipe, frost breaks are more serious. Diametrical 
expansion splits the pipe at the point frozen every time freez¬ 
ing occurs; and lateral extension of the ice staves in the faucet 
stems, etc., quite as frequently as would happen with lead pipe under 
the same conditions. Of late years, the improvement in types of 
buildings, more careful provision against frost on the part of plumbers, 
and the vigilance of the Weather Bureau in giving warning of ap¬ 
proaching cold snaps, have made insignificant the amount of damage 
by frost in both kinds of pipe. 

Lead pipe, as a rule, requires less trench work on ground lines 
than iron pipe, because drilling, even if very poorly aligned, will often 
suffice to get the pipe in place. There are numerous instances, how¬ 
ever, where longer stretches of iron pipe have been placed in drilled 
holes than would be practicable with lead at the same excavating 
cost. It is well to remember that any small line of house service in 
the ground should be placed deeper, so far as immunity from frost 
alone is concerned, than is necessary for the protection of large pipes 
in the same locality, because the volume of contents in house pipes is 
small, the wall surface of the pipe relatively large, and the flow of the 

water not so regularly maintained. 

The action of natural waters on lead has been a matter of wide 
discussion by able men. The subject of possible contamination of 





4 


PLUMBING 


water supply through the agency of lead conduits, is too broad, how¬ 
ever, for full consideration here, and will therefore be but briefly 
touched upon. This trait of lead has been voiced against its use, 
with more or less effect; but known cases of poisoning from this 
source have been exceedingly rare. Galvanized-iron pipe charges 
the water with salts of zinc when the water contains certain impurities; 
and most other kinds of pipe are also more or less open to objection 
at times by reason of their injurious effect on the water, the staining 
of fixtures, etc. Some of the salts of lead formed by the agency of 
water conveyed through lead supply pipe, are protective. Others, 
without doubt—fortunately of rare occurrence is actual practice—are 
corrosive. Sulphate or phosphate of lime, in solution, will part with 
its acid in passing through lead pipe, the acid combining with a new 
base (lead) and forming sulphate or phosphate of lead as the case 
may be. Chloride, sulphate, nitrale, borate, and other compounds of 
lead, may be similarly formed. These incrust the pipe; and such of 
them as are practically insoluble in water protect the lead from further 
attack, thus preserving the quality of the water. Carbonate, sulphate, 
and phosphate of lead, which doubtless form most frequently in lead 
water pipes, belong to the protective class. Of course, not all the 
compounds mentioned are encountered in any one source of supply. 
Chemical compounds designed to produce an insoluble incrustation 
have sometimes been purposely placed in solution, and allowed to 
stand in systems of lead supply pipe where it was known that the 
water to be commonly used would otherwise be dangerously corrosive. 
In view of the possibility of such precautionary measures, the dele¬ 
terious effect of lead on many water supplies, and the consequent 
menace to health if lead were used indiscriminately, could hardly alone 
to any appreciable extent result in the substitution of pipe of other 
material. 

Lead has been thus dwelt upon at the outset, because the industry 
of plumbing itself derived its name from this metal ( Plumbum , Latin 
for “lead”). A discussion sufficient to define broadly the present and 
past status of the metal in the plumbing business, is certainly apropos 
in this connection. To many persons, the term “Plumbing” sug¬ 
gests lead and lead work generally, without regard to its distinctive 
forms, some of which are quite foreign to the ordinary trade meaning. 
To those acquainted with the building practices of Europe, visions of 





PLUMBING 


lead-covered roofs and spires, rainwater heads, etc., in addition to 
manifold other uses of the metal not common in America, may come 
to view in the mind’s eye when ‘'plumbing” is mentioned. To Ameri¬ 
can plumbers of the past generation, “plumbing” suggested stacks of 
hand-made lead soil and waste pipe; hand-made lead traps; lead 
“safe” pans cumbersomely boxed-in under fixtures; ridiculously 
small lead ventilation pipes; lead drip-trays; lead supply pipes 
(sometimes also hand-made); all “wiped” joints and seams; and 
blocks, flanges, braces, boards, and boxes galore, jutting out in pro¬ 
fusion, for supports, covering, etc. 

In reality, we in America have now but little of what the name 
“plumbing” would lead the uninitiated to expect. Stacks of plain or 
galvanized wrought-iron pipe, or of plain, tarred, or galvanized cast- 
iron pipe, of weight to suit the height of building and to serve as main 
soil, waste, and ventilation pipes, with sundry lead bends and ends for 
fixture connections—these, with galvanized wrought-iron or brass pipes 
for supply, constitute the “roughing-in” stage of a job of plumbing; 
while painted or bronzed main lines exposed to view, galvanized-iron 
and nickel-plated brass pipe, with fixtures, partitions, etc., make up a 
view of the finished work, conveying little idea of the functions and 
importance of the unseen portions. Finished work in an unpreten¬ 
tious dwelling or storehouse, when properly charted, is fairly easy for 
even the house-man to understand. In large apartment and office 
buildings, department stores, etc., however, the plumbing, ventilating, 
gasfitting, heating, and automatic sprinkler pipes and electric con¬ 
duits, make, in any but the finished state, a maze of pipe beyond the 
understanding of any except engineers well versed in those lines of 
work. In the completed work, the details are concealed. The toilet 
rooms present an orderly perspective of closets, lavatories, or other 
fixtures, as the case may be, with simple connections according with 
the customary fifiish, kind, or purpose of the pipe. 

This apparent harmony, proportion, and simplicity in the result, 
coupled with a memory of sundry glimpses of a confusion of pipes in 
the rough state, has, it is to be regretted, propagated in many minds, 
a sense of false security regarding plumbing, based on the assumption 
of the plumber’s evident ability to produce order and perfect service 
out of what in the “roughing-in” stage looked chaotic to a hopeless 
degree. The bulk of plumbing work, however, is not of the “sky- 




6 PLUMBING 


scraper” class, nor is it handled by the same type of skill and superin¬ 
tendence. Any feeling of confidence or sense of security on the part of 
the public, is treacherous if based on the assumption that only by a 
degree of skill in direct proportion to the size of the job can satis¬ 
factory plumbing service be provided in residential and other small 
buildings. There is evidence of a somewhat indifferent state of the 

o 

public mind regarding the plumber and his work, induced by the 
reasons stated and also by lack of due consideration and appreciation 
of conditions wrought by progress in other trades. 

Plumbing, in its advancement, is merely keeping pace with the 
allied lines on which it is dependent. Their progress has created new 
conditions to be met; and as the future plumber will hail from the 
ranks of the populace, the light in which the public regards the plumber 
and the importance of his trac^ will have no uncertain bearing on the 
character and earnestness of those who take up the calling. The 
rank and file of apprentices have already too long been attracted 
merely on the score of a promising means of livelihood. There is 
ample reason to begin a plumbing career with all the pride felt by 
followers of any other vocation. It is altogether improbable that any 
individual will be found with so much education or such promising 
ability as to give rise to just grounds of fear that plumbing will not 
offer him sufficient scope to acquit himself with dignity. 

The advent of tall buildings, the general increase in the height 
and other proportions of buildings in cities, and the changes in 
material and in design of fixtures, together with the abnormal demand 
resulting from the decreased cost, natural growth, and gradual awak¬ 
ening through education to the value of sanitary conveniences, have 
brought about a condition of affairs which the old-line plumbers were 
incapable of coping with, and which the old apprenticeship system 
was inadequate to provide men capable of dealing with in a creditable 
manner. The plumbing of one large building involves as much work 
as hundreds of the average small jobs put together. The handling 
of such work under the conditions that have prevailed, has developed 
a deplorable state of so-called “specialism.” Men engaged in “rough- 
ing-in” a large job are likely to tell you with entire truthfulness that 
they have no idea what types of closets or other fixtures are to be used; 
that they know nothing of the principles or merits of plumbing fix¬ 
tures, and do not need to; that they never connected a fixture in their 




Plumbing 


7 


whole career; that the finishers do that kind of work. By further 
inquiry one would find tlie “finishers” utterly at sea in the work of 
“roughing-in,” and accordingly ignorant of the whys and wherefores 
that govern the success of a job as a unit. These men, called “plumb¬ 
ers,” are exceedingly skilful and rapid within their limitations; but 
it is easy to infer the fate of a job intrusted to such hands alone, and 
in practice it has been proven that others of metropolitan practice, 
and merely lacking in variety of experience, were not capable of credit¬ 
able results on general residence work of the ordinary class. 

When the largest jobs were completed in a comparatively short 
time, and when much of the training which went to make up the 
plumber’s accomplishments was credited to the manual practice neces¬ 
sary to master the working of lead and solder, a period of service in 
shop and job practice, coupled with oral instructions from the journey¬ 
man, served fairly well to make a plumber out of raw material within 
the period allotted by the American abridgment of the apprenticeship 
term. On the work of to-day, however, there would be great ^chances 
of an apprentice serving such a term without seeing anything of more 
than from two to five jobs. He would be lucky if it fell to his lot to 
get even a little experience in each of*the natural divisions of those 
jobs; and again fortunate if those jobs happened not to have the same 
general layout or to employ identically the same make of fixtures, for 
there are many shops which seem to have the faculty of securing 
work from certain particular sources, and which are equally likely for 
one reason or another to be recommending and using, where possible, 
one particular make of goods to the exclusion of other kinds just as 
good or better. These and kindred features now met with on every 
hand in practice, are stumbling-blocks—prohibitive, in fact, of anyone 
learning the plumbing trade within any period of time that can sensibly 
be prescribed for the acquiring of a trade or profession. 

For more than a decade, the often-avowed reluctance of journey¬ 
men to teach apprentices has been held responsible for the trend of 
these affairs affecting the practice of the industry; but in the light of 
what has been said, it is easy to determine what it was that really intro¬ 
duced the Plumbing Correspondence School and Plumbing Trade 
Classes. It was necessity. Trade journals have done and are still 
doing good work in this line; but their best efforts, added to the oppor¬ 
tunities of practice, were insufficient. There was no other satisfactory 



8 


PLUMBING 


solution than the Correspondence School—no other route to the 
acquisition of principles and acquaintanceship with the accumulated 
information as to the relative merit or fitness of certain materials, 
designs, systems, etc., and as to the conditions under which this or 
that would serve well, while it might act just the reverse under other 
circumstances. 

Under the present regime, it is not only apprentices and those 
who intend becoming such, but journeymen as well, that need to seek 
aid in the schools. The citizen at large, also, serves his own interest 
in informing himself in a general way at the same fountain, so as to 
be able to discriminate for himself in matters pertaining to plumbing. 
Furthermore, any real plumber would prefer that his customer should 
be familiar with the work in hand. Fewer misunderstandings occur 
when such is the case, and there is a keener appreciation of good 
work on one hand and a corresponding effort to merit approval on the 
other. There is, too, in favor of the plumber, when the customer is 
informed, an absence of those niggardly tactics of trying to secure 
much for little, of sacrificing quality and future satisfaction by reducing 
first cost below the safe limit. The well-informed customer never 
makes you feel that all plumbing is alike to him and a necessary evil 
to be paid for at rates far in excess of its value. 

With the foregoing introduction in mind let us look further into 
the subject and see what “Plumbing” really is. Whether we are 
actual or self-nominated apprentices, journeymen, masters, or the 
prospective customer himself, a view of the matter will be beneficial, 
if only in the sense of refreshing memory. 

There was a time when sanitary conveniences, crude in com¬ 
parison with the present, were considered mere luxuries. Under 
the present views of life and the conditions of living, we may with 
greater propriety consider these erstwhile luxuries as actual neces¬ 
sities, though they are often luxurious to a degree that dwarfs into 
insignificance other appointments which even then were granted to 
be essentials. Plumbing is, therefore, neither in fact nor in opinion, 
a matter of simple luxury for the rich and delicate, but is, rather, an 
important subject of deep salutary interest on the one hand and of 
business acumen on the other—a matter of essentials deeply affecting 
the best interests of our own health and that of our neighbors, with 
which mere sentiment has no ground for association. The time 






PLUMBING 


9 


when it was thought sufficient to fan out the mosquitoes in summer 
and break the ice in winter at the family rain barrel in order to wash 
our faces and hands, has passed. A dwelling job may now embrace 
almost the entire range of plumbing fixtures. There is therefore 
no better example from which to build a word-picture of Plumbing. 

PLUMBING FIXTURES 

Bathtubs. Bathtubs are a prime factor in plumbing. They are 
of various types:—(1) Wooden cases, with sheet-metal lining, usually 
copper, on the order shown in Fig. 1; (2) all copper, and steel-clad, 
suitably mounted, as shown in Fig. 2; (3) cast iron, enameled, with 
a vitreous glaze fused on the iron, as in Figs. 4 and 5; (4) solid porce¬ 
lain, potter’s clay properly fired, with vitreous glaze fired on, as in 
Fig. 3; and (5) marble, variegated or otherwise, cut from the solid 
block. Their cost ranges in the order mentioned. 

The relative merit of the different materials and types is not so 
easily designated. Porcelain and marble baths are large, very heavy, 
and imposing-looking; and therefore are often selected on the score 
of massiveness, with a view to harmonizing with the dimensions and 
finish of the house. One would suppose the mass of material in such 
baths would have the effect of cooling the water to an annoying extent; 
but careful tests have revealed no appreciable difference in the effect 
of thin as compared with thick bathtubs on the warmth of water, and 
but little in their pleasantness of touch to the person. The bath of 
most pleasant touch was that of indurated wood fiber, which, how¬ 
ever, had but little commercial success, on account of its lack of 
stability. 

Most baths are made in from two to five regular sizes, ranging 
from 4 to 6 feet in extreme length. The general shapes are the 
French (Fig. 3); the Modified French (Fig. 4); and the Roman 
(Fig. 5). The various French patterns have the waste and supply 
fittings at the foot, which is modified in form to accommodate them. 
The waste water travels the length of the tub to reach the outlet, and 
generally leaves scum and sediment on the interior while emptying. 
Baths of the French type are suited to corner positions, or to positions 
in which one side runs along the wall; but the ideal position foi a 
bathtub, in the interest of cleanliness, is with the foot end to the wall, 



10 


PLUMBING 



Fig. 1. Wooden Case Bathtub, with Sheet-Metal Lining. 



Fig. 2. All-Copper, Steel-Clad Bathtub. 



Fig. 3. Solid Porcelain Bathtub, French Type. 










































PLUMBING 


11 


thus permitting entrance from either side. A medium size is best 
suited to the usual provision for supplying hot water for bath pur¬ 
poses; and is also preferred by many because the feet reach the foot, 
enabling a person, when submerging the body, to keep his head 



out of water, with his shoulder resting on the slant at the head of 
the tub. Where the house supply is pumped by hand, the medium 
size of any kind of bath is advisable. 

The rims of baths vary from 1J to 5 inches in width. The larger 
rims are easy on the person in getting in and out of the bath, and are 
often used in lieu of a bath seat. In iron baths with rims large 
enough, the fittings are generally passed through the rim, as illus¬ 
trated in Fig. 6, thus giving them additional stability and making 



Fig. 5. Enameled Cast-Iron Bathtub, Roman Type. 


the stated fixture length include the whole space necessary for its 
installation. This style of bath fitting is shown in Fig. 7. 

Nominal sizes of baths now include the whole length of the fix¬ 
ture proper. Formerly many awkward mistakes resulted from lack 
















12 [PLUMBING 

of uniformity, one not always knowing whether to consider the nominal 
size as inside measurement only or including twice the rim width. 
In cast tubs, actual measures vary slightly from the nominal, because 
of the furnace effect when heating to enamel. The variation, however, 
is not sufficient to be considered in noting the space required, or to 
require any advance in roughing-in measurements. 

Roman baths have ends alike, with the fittings at the center of 
one side, as illustrated in Fig. 8, and the waste outlet at the center 
of width and length. In general, they empty with better effect, and 
may be placed in either right or left corner or free of all the walls; 




but the best position, everything considered, is with the fitting side 
near the wall, and not against either end of the room. 

Any finish for iron bathtubs, other than plain paint, should be 
put on at the factory; iron surfaces cannot be ground and the suc¬ 
cessive coats of paint dried on in place, properly or cheaply. 

Waste fittings and the outlets of baths have always been made 
too small. Slow emptying takes valuable time, and results in the ad¬ 
herence of scum, which necessitates careful cleansing of the bath 
before it is used again. 

The fittings of baths are not interchangeable unless the oblique¬ 
ness of the tub walls and the depth and drilling agree. The styles of 
fittings are universally applicable, except that double bath-cocks 








































PLUMBING 


13 


(Fig. 9) are never placed on Roman baths. All double cocks are 
provided with detachable coupling and sprinkler, which, fitted to 
hose, provide a means of spraying the body. Independent spray, 
needle, shampoo, and 
overhead shower fixtures, 
simple and in combina¬ 
tion, with or without cur¬ 
tains, are made for use 
with the various tubs, the 
tub serving as a receptor 
for the falling water. 

The cheapest serv¬ 
iceable bath fittings are 
a Double Cock and Con¬ 
nected Waste and Over¬ 
flow. These are shown 
in Fig. 10. * Bell Supply 
and Waste fittings, a spe¬ 



cial type of which is Big- 8. Showing Central Location of Fittings and 
J y . Waste Outlet in Roman Bathtub. 

shown in Fig. 11, are 

singularly popular, the water being retained by a ring valve at¬ 
tached at the bottom of the overflow pipe, and operated by means of 
a knob projecting above and through the top of the waste standpipe. 
This takes the place of the ordinary plug and chain used with the 
simple overflow. The supplies are made and fitted in combination 
with the waste arrangement, with the valve handles projecting above 
the rim of the bath, the two supplies being delivered into a common 

yoke-piece, where they mix and flow 
through a common passage to the 
bell-piece fitted through the vertical 
wall near the bottom of the bath. 
With the usual slotted-bell delivery, 
these fittings are a nuisance in one 
respect. Water cannot be xlrawn 

Fig. 9. Double Batb-Cock. Never used into a vessel through the bell for 
on Roman Bathtubs. i, . , 

any ulterior purpose; and as no 
vessel of considerable capacity can be filled at the lavatory faucets, 
or at a sitz or a foot bath, the sink faucets are the only resort unless a 













































14 


PLUMBING 


slop sink is available. Nozzle-delivery bells, which afford some relief 
in this respect, are made; and hand sprays used in conjunction with 
them avoid the expense of special shower fixtures, which would other¬ 
wise be essential if shower or spray were desired at all. 

A modification of these fittings, termed “Top-Nozzle Supply and 
Waste” (Fig-12), overcomes this objection to the strictly “Bell Supply” 
type. It has a high nozzle delivery projecting into the tub, and is 

fitted for spray attachment. The 
inward projection is much less 
than with a double cock, which, 
in a short bathtub, would occupy 
much needed space. The noise 
of falling water, obviated with the 
bell placed low, is the same as 
with the double cock; and the 
mixing space, intermediate be¬ 
tween that of a cock and the regu¬ 
lar bell delivery. 

An element of danger is in¬ 
herent in a bell-supply outlet 
placed so low down as to be sub¬ 
merged when the tub is in use. 
If the supply is opened when the 
tub contains dirty water, and the 
pressure of water, is lowered by 
accident or by opening faucets 
elsewhere, it is quite possible that the fouled water will be drawn 
back through the bell or nozzle into the supply pipes, thus, perhaps, 
contaminating the water for domestic use. For this reason, cocks 
which discharge near the top edge of the fixture, above the level of 
the water, are increasingly used at present. 

For private use, where both children and adults are to be regu¬ 
larly served, the bathtub is the only fixture answering the require¬ 
ments. As the physical conditions of the members of the family are, 
or should be, mutually known, and the tub will be regularly cleansed 
between baths, any possible chance of communicating humors of the 
skin through the bath can be guarded against. For institutions and 
general public use, the tub bath is open to serious objections, some of 







Fig. 10. Common Type of Double Cock and 
Connected Waste and Overflow. 















PLUMBING 


15 


which apply as well to private use. The water for a tub bath is at its 
best when first drawn into the tub; and the per¬ 
son, before bathing, is certainly in condition to 
pollute it more or less. As the bathing process 
nears completion, these conditions are exactly re¬ 
versed. Tubs used by the public may not be 
carefully cleansed between times of use, and the 
bather is ignorant of the condition both of the 
tub and of the person who used it previously. In 
institutions for the insane and feeble-minded, un¬ 
scrupulous attendants have been known to bathe 
several persons in the same water. Large pools 
are better, but still not ideal; nor are they always 
suitable or practicable. 

Shower Baths. Shower or rain baths are 
commonly installed in barracks, gymnasiums, 
and schools, and are no longer unusual in private 
dwellings. Some of the objections to the tub bath, 
which have been stated, are entirely avoided by 
the shower fixture with its supply of running water. 

Those who have studied the hygienic effects 

^ . Fig. 11. Bell Supply and 

produced by the action of waste Fittings. 

jets or streams on the surface of the body, 
urge very strongly that the impact results in 
stimulating the proper action of the skin. This 
is the opinion of most persons who have had 
experience with such apparatus. 

The older forms of showers, which direct the 
water vertically upon the head of the bather, 
are not so desirable as those in which the out¬ 
let is inclined and placed at about the level of 
the shoulders, thus avoiding wetting the head 
unless desired. Indeed, all the essentials of a 
bath of this form are met by a water-supplied 
rubber tube discharging at about the level of 
the waist over a tight floor or pan provided 
with a drain. 

Aside from the shower baths that may be provided in conjunction 










































16 


PLUMBING 


with a bathtub, one type of which is shown in Fig. 13, many designs 
are fitted to floor-pans, called receptors, usually having a curtain, 

as in Fig. 14, thus providing for 
private installations a great va¬ 
riety of complete showering and 
spraying appointments. The re¬ 
ceptors may be enameled iron, 
porcelain, or marble. A cement 
or asphalt floor, sloping to a drain, 
is simple and effective. 

In lieu of the full curtain and 
regular receptor capable of pro¬ 
viding six to eight inches’ depth of 
water, and having tub-like supply 
and waste fittings in addition to 
the shower features, a shallow 
base of marble provided with a 
drain and having three marble 
sides, such as is shown in Fig. 15, 
can be provided with any pre¬ 
ferred type of shower fittings. The 
overhead douche, already noted, 
set at an angle, with flexible joint 
for adjustment, as seen in Fig. 16, 
so that the body can be played on 
without wetting the hair, is not 
often fitted to private shower fix¬ 
tures, as it requires considerable 
additional space. A rubber cap 
for the head enables one to use 
the vertical shower with a fair 
degree of satisfaction. 

A point concerning shower fix¬ 
tures and relating to the safety of 
the user, to which special attention 
should always be given, is that of 
the valve arrangement. If the design renders it at all possible, as some¬ 
times is the case, one is apt inadvertently to scald himself by at first 



Pig. 13. Type of Shower Bath Provided in 
Conjunction with Bathtub. 





































































PLUMBING 


17 


turning on hot water alone. The chances of injury in this way 
increase with elaborate combinations, if not carefully guarded against 
by the designers; and we should not take it for granted that they have 
provided such safeguards. As a rule, reliable makers do embody 
ample mixing chambers, thermometers, etc., in such apparatus, 



Fig. 14. ' Shower-Bath, with Curlain 
Fitted to Receptor. 



Fig. 15. Shower-Bath with Three Marble 
Sides and Shallow Marble Base. 


where necessary, and they regulate the control of hot-service valves, 
or in some other way render the improper use of them unlikely. 

Sitz Baths. These are primarily for bathing the hips and loins 
in a sitting posture, but may be fitted.with special features as ordered. 
Porcelain and enameled iron are the usual materials. The fixtures 














































































































































































18 


PLUMBING 


approximate in dimensions 15 inches in height at front and 26 inches 
at back, and are 26 to 30 inches wide. In the back, at a proper height, 
in a complete fixture, like that shown in Fig. 17, is a horizontal slit ac¬ 
commodating fittings for a “Liver Spray”—a wide wave-like spray of 
water, either hot, cold, or of intermediate temperature, as suits the 
person. In the bottom, in conjunction with the outlet, is a hot or 

cold d ouche, equally 
under control of the 
user. In the center 
of the douche, and 
operated indepen¬ 
dently, isaBidet jet. 
These provisions 
are entirely sepa¬ 
rate from and in¬ 
dependent of the 
regular supply fit¬ 
tings, but one waste 
fitting is used in 
common for all. 
The simple s i t z 
bath has the regular 
Bell Supply a n d 
Waste, like those 
used on the bath, 
the dimensions be¬ 
ing diminished to 
suit. For the ex- 

Fig. 16. Shower-Bath Fittings with Overhead Douche Set at traordinary fea- 
an Angle on a Flexible Joint. J 

tures, these fittings 

are merely adapted in a way to give the user convenient control. 
For all but the simplest fixtures, the control appliances are in¬ 
variably fitted through the rims, the valve handles being provided 
with proper indices to guide the user. Bidet jets in combination 
with sitz-bath fittings, have to a great extent curtailed the use of 
separate Bidet fixtures. Bidet jets have often been added to a 
water-closet, but a satisfactory application cannot be made to a 
closet. Separate Bidet fixtures are now rare, but are furnished by 



































PLUMBING 


19 



fixture makers; and in isolated cases, where frequent or regular use is 
necessary, are preferable to any combination with a fixture used for 
other purposes. 

The sitz bath is conveniently used for a .foot-bath, thus making 
this fixture doubly useful. Indeed, the sitz bath is a more comfortable 
means of bathing the feet than is the foot-bath itself. Children’s bath¬ 
tubs, small, and elevated by legs to the height of a lavatory, are made,, 
but no well-defined demand exists for them. Greater convenience 
to the nurse, the use of less water, and quicker filling and emptying, 
are the only points in their favor. 

Foot=Baths. The foot-bath is a small rectangular tub with proper 
feet and rim, fur¬ 
nished with supply 
and w T aste of the 
regular bath pat¬ 
tern, diminished to 
suit. The sizes av¬ 
erage say 12 inches 
deep, with 20-inch 
sides. The feet 
make the total 
height about 18 
inches. Fig. 18 
gives a good idea of 
the usual enameled- 
iron foot-bath fixture. Enameled iron and porcelain are the usual 
materials. They require even less water than the sitz bath, but, as 
before said, are not so convenient for the purpose as the sitz fixture, 
and are not installed except in the most spacious and elaborate bath¬ 
rooms. The foot-bath would serve admirably as a child’s bath, ex- 


No, 17. Sitz Bath, with Complete Fittings. 


cept that it is too near the floor. 

Bidet Fixtures. The majority of leading fixture makers do not 
now catalogue these. They consist essentially of a pedestal like a 
closet pedestal, with bowl and rim contracted in the center, giving 
an outline something like the figure 8. Proper fittings to operate the 
jet and waste are provided. Porcelain is the material. As men¬ 
tioned before, Bidet jets are furnished in combination with receptor 
shower fixtures, as well as with sitz baths. 

























20 


PLUMBING 


Drinking Fountains.. Drinking fountains are now frequently 
used in stores, schools, and residences, the various fixtures adapted 
to such installations being readily obtainable. The basins or drip- 
slabs for public indoor fountains, are often cut to order by the manu¬ 
facturer; and the cooling and faucet arrangements are provided by 
the plumber. Porcelain, enameled-iron, and marble fountains of 
stock designs are made. For schools, trough-like basins, either with 
open spouts for continuous streams, or with self-closing faucets, as 
shown in Fig. 19, are frequent. The fixture shown in Fig. 20, con¬ 
sisting of solid porcelain, in which the recessed drain-slab and the 

high back constitute a single 
piece, is of recent design, pre¬ 
sents an excellent appearance, 
and has the advantage of being 
easily kept in immaculate condi¬ 
tion. The three deep waste out¬ 
lets, above each of which is a 
faucet, afford facilities to many 
users in a short space of time. 
One device which serves well 
Fig. is. coi^mon Type of Enameied-iron f or common use, is the ordinary 

lavatory, provided with a stiff 
perforated bottom fitting extending well up toward the top of the bowl. 
This, with a proper faucet on the slab, and a cup-chain fitted to the 
extra faucet-hole, makes a useful but not attractive fixture. 

Recessed porcelain and enameled fountains designed to be placed 
in wall niches, and having concealed connections, as suggested by 
Fig. 21, are neat, and require very little room outside the finished wall 
line. Countersunk slabs with strainer waste, with back either integral 
or separate, as design or material dictates, are made in marble and 
porcelain. Marble fountains are adaptable to any location, because 
the slab and back can be cut to any shape or dimensions preferred. 
The fountain proper, faucet, cup, and pipe waste connection, with 
strainer, are all that is supplied by the makers. 

A type (if fountain shown in Fig. 22, is provided with a flowing 
jet of water from which one can drink without placing the lips in 
contact with any metal surface. The small central bowl or cup is 
constantly submerged and cleansed in the stream of water which 













PLUMBING 


21 


passes outwardly over it, thus avoiding the danger incident to the 
common use of the same drinking cup by many persons. The surface 



Fig. 19. School Drinking Fountain—Enameled Iron, with Self-Closing Faucet. 



does not afford lodgment to possible germs of disease, which are most 
liable to transmit contagion when allowed to become dry and adhere 
to a surface. 

Lavatories. Lavatories are made from porcelain, enameled iron, 
marble, and onyx, in numerous patterns. The number of designs is 
so large that thev are best understood if considered in the classes into 
which they may be 
divided. In marble 
and onyx fixtures, 
the slab, back, and 
bowl are necessarily 
separate pieces. In 
any but very accu- 
r a t e fitting a n d 
erecting, the un¬ 
avoidable joints 
soon, if not from 
the beginning, in¬ 
vite* the accumula¬ 
tion of dirt. Poor workmanship, settling, abortive countersinks, and 


Fig. 20. Porcelain Drinking Fountain. Recessed Drain-Slab 
and High Back in One Piece. 


























































































22 


PLUMBING 


faucet bosses not cut free within the countersink, have in many cases 
brought slab types of basins into unjust repute, or, at least, have 
given basis for strong talking points against them, which have 
been effectively so used. If made and installed in the most 
approved manner, these styles, properly cared for, offer little 



Fig. 21. Porcelain Recessed Drinking Fountain. 


reason for severe criticism. One fact, however, must be borne in 
mind when comparing marble with other materials used for plumb¬ 
ing fixtures—namely, that marble is not an impermeable stone. 
Nearly all marbles (excepting only the very hardest and most dense) 
are quite absorbent, and depend upon the surface finish given to the 





























































PLUMBING 


23 


slab to resist the entrance of liquids into the body of the stone. As 
soon as the surface becomes roughened by wear, the greasy and acid 
wastes penetrate into the pores, and the marble becomes permanently 
discolored. Only a limited observation of the bad condition of marble 
floors or urinal slabs which have been subjected to use for a few years, 
is necessary to confirm this statement. 

Ordinary Tennessee, Veined Italian, Hawkins County Tennessee, 
and Statuary Italian marble, range in cost in the order mentioned. 
Fancy imported marbles and onyx are much more 
expensive. Tennessee marble varies in color 
from grayish brown to very dark reddish brown, 
uniformly intermixed with light specks. The 
Hawkins County marble is bright reddish and 
white-mottled. All the ordinarv materials are cut 
in stock sizes, and may also be had to order, like 
the more costly, in any size and shape desired. 

The type with apron or skirting, shown in 
Fig. 23, has legs, and the slab is supported contin¬ 
uously by the skirting. In those supported by 
brackets or leg-brackets, the strength of the slab is 
depended upon for support between the bearings. 

Legs, brackets, and all other metal trimmings 
should be in keeping with the character and cost 
of the stone slab. If brackets are properly spaced, 
the weight is so balanced as to leave very little 
sagging strain on the center of the slab. A shelf of marble, or a 
mirror with marble frame, or both, may be fitted above the back as a 
part of the fixture. 

Porcelain and enameled-iron lavatories have bowl, back apron, 
and soap-cup in one piece. The pedestal of the lavatory illustrated 
in Fig. 24 is separate, of course, and no back is required, but the 
general features of integral construction are shown. There are no 
joints to open. The only injury possible to them is the marring or 
fracture of* the glaze or enamel. Porcelain and iron lavatories, unlike 
those of marble, are adapted to pedestal support; and some very 
desirable patterns are therefore made in these materials only. Neither 
pedestal nor wall lavatories are suitable for use, except where the wall 
or wainscoting is of marble, tile, or some other waterproof material. 



Fig. 22. Drinking 
Fountain. No Cup 
Necessary. 
















24 


PLUMBING 



Fig. 23. Brazilian Agate Slab Lavatory, with Apron and Legs, 





































































PLUMBING 


25 


I o provide for leaving the floor clear and free of obstruction, lavatories 
supported on brackets or hangers, as indicated in Fig. 25, with supply, 
waste, and ventilating pipes fitted on or into the wall, are best. If 
found practicable, a neater job results if all pipes leading to and 
from pedestal lavatories are carried through the pedestal. A supply 
and waste run to the floor is generally far easier and cheaper to secure 
than the fitting of all pipes to the wall. 

The purchaser seeking iron or porcelain fixtures, has no choice 
of styles beyond that which the market regularly affords. If he pre¬ 
fers the workable materials, he should insist upon certain features of 
design which.are essential to the best service. Abrupt edges and sharp 
corners should be avoided; the slab ought to be at least 14 inches 
thick, and the back not less than 12 
inches high; the general dimensions 
must be as liberal as space will 
allow or the service demands (not 
less than 22 by 32 inches for a 14 by 
17-inch bowl); the countersinking 
must be deep, T 3 6 to J inch; the 
faucet bosses must not join the gen¬ 
eral border level at all; the faucets 
must not be less than 12 inches 
apart, nor so near the bowl that it 
will be difficult to secure them to 
the slab; nor may they be placed so 
close to the back as to make repair¬ 
ing troublesome with any type of Fuller faucets; the joint surface of 
the bowl must be ground to fit the slab, and provided with not less 
than four well-drilled anchor-holes for clamps to secure it. 

Round bowls were formerly quite generally in use, but are now 
almost relegated to memory. The width of slab needed for a roomy, 
round bowl is too great; and at best the arms of the user must be 
cramped in a somewhat vertical and awkward position, while the 
smaller sizes are very uncomfortable in this respect. The sudden 
opening of the faucet when the bowl is empty, is likely to ricochet water 
with annoying results. This is caused by the water striking the 
curved bowl surface at a tangent, and is not peculiar to the circular 
bowl; the oval or crescent, or, indeed, any shape of bowl that presents 



Fig. 24. Lavatory on Pedestal. 














20 


PLUMBING 


a curved surface to which the faucet stream is tangent, favors the same 
result; the ovals in integral fixtures are the most annoying. Marble 
and onyx have an advantage over porcelain and enameled lavatories 
so far as ricocheting is concerned. 1 he opening in the slab is not so 
large as the bowl, and thus a horizontal overhanging ledge is formed 
all around, above the bowl, which generally intercepts the water in a 
way to keep it off the floor and person. Porcelain and enameled 
fixtures have not this virtue. The bowl surface, being integral with 

‘the slab, is uninter- 


d 


I ’.gU MM U! ■ v I 1 WM| 


7 \. 




ir¬ 


rupted. and continu¬ 
ous; hence ricocheting 
is more violent with 
them than is possible 
with the separate bowl. 

Oval bowls are now 
in general use on all 
types of lavatories. 
They employ slab 
space to the best ad¬ 
vantage, and are the 
most convenient for 
use. The crescent or 
kidney shape, illus¬ 
trated in Fig. 26, is, 
however, as far super¬ 
ior to the simple oval 
bowl as the oval is to 

the round. It permits the forearms to lie in a natural and most 
convenient position when dipping water to lave the face. This form 
of bowl should be accompanied with a scalloped or recessed front. 
The D-shaped bowl, and other bowls embracing the prime feature 
of the D-shape, while not so graceful in appearance, are, without 
exception, to be preferred, on the score of utter absence of ricocheting 
when the faucets are properly placed. The D-shape, a transverse 
section of which is shown in Fig. 27, has a semi-oval front, with the 
end lines continued parallel some distance past the major axis, and 
with a straight-line back nearly vertical. This form gives a nearly 
flat surface in the bottom between the back wall and major axis, on 



Fig. 25. Lavatory Supported on Brackets. 

















PLUMBING 


27 



which surface the stream strikes and breaks when the bowl is empty. 
A depth of water is quickly formed under the stream, which checks 
any spraying or spattering. 

The traps used for lavatories are lean or brass (either cast or 
tubes), or combinations of these materials, plain or vented or of anti¬ 
siphon design. One trouble with 
lavatory trap ventilation, is the dif¬ 
ficulty of obtaining a vertical rise 
directly above the trap. These vent 
connections should be carried as 
nearly vertical as possible, as high 
at least as the bottom of the lavatory 
slab, before any horizontal run is 
made; otherwise the choking of the 

Waste pipe Would float solid matters pig. 26 . Plan of Lavatory Slab with Cres- 
. , , P i • 1 •, cent or Kidney-Shaped Bowl. 

•into places from which gravity 

would not dislodge them. In the absence of water-wash in the vent 
pipe, these solids would obstruct the vent and defeat its purpose. 
This danger is not given due attention by many plumbers. The 
patent and horn overflow bowls, with plug and chain, are the cheapest 
effective means of controlling the overflow and waste from the bowl. 
The standing waste, of essentially the same design as the waste fitting 
for a bathtub, with the body fitting projecting through the slab at the 

rear of the bowl, is perhaps the most satis¬ 
factory waste and overflow arrangement. 
Various schemes for operating basin stoppers 
by means of levers and swivels, are em¬ 
ployed; but none of them has come into 
more than limited use. 

Basin faucets, aside from special designs, 
are made on three general operating princi¬ 
ples—(1) screw-compression; (2) eccentric 
action without springs; and (3) self-closing. 
They are also made in two types—with reg¬ 
ular and low-down nozzles. All of these are represented in 
Fi<>\ 28. The regular type has the nozzle some distance above the 
base flange, and screws into, or is cast on, the body. I he low- 
down type has its nozzle with a flat bottom, hugging the slab as 



























28 


PLUMBING 


closely as practicable. The objection to the low-down is the inac¬ 
cessible narrow space between the nozzle and slab, which becomes 
filthy and is difficult to clean. High, projecting nozzles obstruct the 
space over the bowl, especially when washing the hair, but are other¬ 
wise most satisfactory. The high nozzle gives trouble with patterns of 
faucets that separate in the body for repairs, such as the Fuller type, 
which closes rapidly with pressure. The fault, however, is often 
that the slab is so shallow as to necessitate the faucets being placed too 
close to the back to turn without removing the nozzles. If these are 
cast on, removal of the whole faucet is required before it can be 
separated. Some faucets are made with union joint in the body, 
thus avoiding such trouble; but these are not widely used. 

The false economy which often dictates the purchase of a small 
slab, generally also prevails in the selection of its trimmings. C om- 
pression .faucets close against the pressure, and are slow in action, 
causing practically no reaction. They are generally responsible for 
the omission of air-chambers on supplies of medium pressure. On 
account of their slow action, they are suitable for high pressures 
although but little weight is given this fact by the trade. The features 
essential to good, lasting service in the compression faucet, are: a 
cross-handle, a stuffing box, a raised seat, and a swivel disc. Self¬ 
closing faucets of various patterns are made with a view to preventing 
waste of water, the intention being to compel the user to hold the faucet 
open only as long as water is needed, and to insure automatic closing 
when it is released. There are none such except the crown-handled, 
that an ingenious person cannot find means to hold open at will; yet, 


withal, self-closing faucets are of great value in reducing wastage. 
A rabbit-eared faucet can be kept open by placing a ring over the 
handles while squeezed together; the telegraph bibb, by weighting 
down or tying up the lever; and the T-handled, while not so easily 
controlled, can be tied open by a lever secured to the handle. The 
crown-handled design can be operated with ease by the hand of the 
user, but does not readily lend itself to unauthorized control by means 
of a mechanical stop. Self-closing faucets require strong and well- 
designed springs to close them against the force of the water. They 
have sometimes come into disrepute through leakage for lack of 
adequacy in this feature of their construction. 





PLUMBING 


29 


Lavatory supports should have positive means of leveling the 
slab, such as set screws, screw-dowels, or whatever adjustment the 
kind of lavatory and support may be best suited to. Lavatory 
brackets are generally at fault in having limited bearing at the bottom 
of the wall-face. This point of the bracket is where all the strain is 
thrown against the wall, and the effect is noticeable if the upper end 
springs away ever so little. Full-length brackets are not open to this 
criticism, but they interfere with the washboard or other finish next 
the floor. 

Sinks. These are made in four general classes according to the 
purpose to be served—namely, Kitchen, Pantry, Slop, and Factory 
or Wash-Sinks. The materials used are:—Porcelain; enameled, 



galvanized, and painted cast iron; enameled, galvanized, and painted 
wrought iron; brown glazed ware; copper; slate, soapstone, various 
compositions; and occasionally wood. Porcelain and enameled 
cast iron are most used, galvanized and painted sinks being confined 
principally to factory use. Sinks of extreme length, in one piece, as 
shown in Fig. 29, or sectional, G to c3 inches deep, with supply and 
faucets over the center line or at the side, belong to the factory class. 
These are usually provided with a flat rim, rest on pedestals, and are 
not over 24 inches wide. There are also roll-rim patterns, with 
bracket support and iron back, and with faucets fitted through the 
back. These are generally 8* inches deep and about 20 inches wide. 

Kitchen sinks vary in size according to general requirements. 
Common sizes are 18 by 30 inches and 20 by 30 inches. The depth 


































30 


PLUMBING 


ranges from G to 7 inches. There are two types of iron sink fiat-rim, 
with outlet at end; and roll-rim, with outlet in center. Neither style 
of outlet is always desirable as to connection; but the center outlet 
drains more directly. The flat-rim type is not provided with legs. 
Cast legs were formerly furnished, being attached to the sink by slip¬ 
ping into dovetails. When legs are desired for this type, the plumber 
provides gas-pipe legs, with or without a top frame. Iron splash¬ 
backs are provided for flat-rim sinks, but not of the deep pattern in 
which air-chambers may be cast. Plumbers drill these sink rims 
to attach brackets or legs, and sometimes also to secure to them 
hardwood capping or drainboard. Hardwood drainboards are 

generally provided by 
the plumber’s carpen- 
t e r. II a r d w o o d 
splash-backs, set free 
of the wall to permit 
circulation of air be¬ 
hind the fixture, are 
also provided. Some¬ 
times marble splash¬ 
backs are provided. 
Marble is best, but is 
not in keeping with a flat-rim sink. The back may extend to the 
end of the drainboard, or merely cover the length of the sink. Omit¬ 
ting the back behind the drainboard, as represented in Fig. 30, is 
often thought desirable. The drainboard should be free of the wall 
when the back is not extended. Iron sinks, with roll rim on front 
and ends, are furnished with drainboards suited to attach to either 
or both ends. These may be added as an after-consideration, or 
changed from side to side at will, if there is but one drainboard, or 
removed entirely, without marring the looks or service of the sink. 
This interchangeability commends itself to both plumber and cus¬ 
tomer. 

Roll-rim sinks, with the end recessed to receive a drainboard, are 
also made, which give good service, but in any subsequent change of 
location require setting in the original relative position. 

Wooden drainboards, with an iron end to attach to sink, and 
enameled-iron drainboards, are furnished if ordered. 



Fig. 29. Long Wash-Sink for Factory Use. 














PLUMBING 


31 


Open strainers are most frequently fitted to sinks, in which case 
the sink cannot be then used for washing dishes, but merely serves as 
a suppoit foi dishpans and other vessels and as a catch-all for drippings 
from the drainer. Hence the open-strainer sink must be large enough 
to accommodate suitable washpans, etc., while one fitted with a plug- 
strainer should be relatively small if it is designed to use the sink 
proper as a washpan. 

The use of wooden sinks in large installations, such as hotel 
kitchens and restaurants, is not unusual, the theory of their use being 
that less breakage of crockery occurs, by reason of the softness of the 


Fig. 30. Enameled-Iron Kitchen Sink Supported on Brackets. Splash-Back 

Omitted behind Drainboard. 



material. The argument against the use of wood is not given due 
weight in this connection. The well-recognized objection to any 
porous, absorptive material which retains moisture and is subject to 
decomposition, is especially to be considered in the use of wood for 
greasy wastes. For the reason mentioned, wood is never a suitable 
material for this use. 

Rubber mats are essential for both sinks and drainboards having 
enameled or glazed surfaces, in order to avoid accidental injury to 
the articles cleansed. As a matter of fact, the average dwelling has 
but one sink, which serves both kitchen and pantry purposes. Dual 
service is not always satisfactory, however, as no sink can be well 



















oo 


PLUMBING 


adapted to both uses for a large family. A plug-strainer sink should 

also be provided with an overflow. 

Porcelain and iron sinks have generally been supplied with loose 
backs; but sinks of one piece—that is, with sink and back integral - 
are now obtainable. Sinks with integral apron or skirting all around, 
to be placed free of the wall, are suitable for installation where the 
wall is waterproof. 

Sinks are built from slabs of natural stone as desired, and may 
be with or without drainboard or skirting. They are generally pro¬ 
vided with a high splash-back. These sinks are not limited to the 
patterns of a moulding room, and easily keep pace with the desires 
of the purchasers. Selection is confined to a choice of material, 
as every desirable type of fixture is easily supplied. 

In the use of any natural stone, such as slate or soapstone, for 
plumbing fixtures, and especially for sinks, it should not be forgotten 
that angles and rectangular corners are with difficulty maintained 
entirely free from deposit. Although the fiat surface can be readily 
scoured, it is always difficult to clean the sharp angles and corners 
satisfactorily. The difficulty is increased by the fact that some 
plastic jointing material, such as putty or cement, must be used in 
putting together the fixture; and small fragments of this material 
project into the angles- and render the corners rough. Stone and 
porcelain sinks are heavy, and recjuire careful packing for shipment. 

Air-chambers may be cast in iron sink-backs. The ordinary 
sink-back is not well suited to the convenience of the plumber where 
supplies to any fixtures pass up behind the sink. The faucet-holes 
cannot be changed, and slots for pipe are not provided at the top 
edge. Sawing these gaps after the goods are enameled, leaves the 
fixture with an unfinished appearance. The proportion of shank to 
the handle of faucets of the Fuller pattern used on sink-backs, must 
be such that the handles will turn straight back. 

A popular fixture of comparatively late design, adapted for small 
dwellings and now made in the cheaper materials, is the kitchen sink 
in combination with a single laundry tray, an example of which is 
shown in Fig. 31. In this, the drainboard serves as a cover for the 
tray when the sink is in use. Sinks have also been supplied in com¬ 
bination with lavatories, one sink being placed in the center or at 
the end of a battery of lavatories. 







PLUMBING 


33 


A pantry sink (Pig. 32) should always be provided with a drain- 
board. It is a smaller fixture than the kitchen sink, and is nearly 
always of the plug-strainer and overflow type. Its faucets are gener¬ 
ally of the high-nozzle type, like those for shampoo purposes, but of 
smaller capacity and better adapted to rinsing than are kitchen-sink 
faucets. Indeed, the pantry sink proper need not necessarily differ 
at all from sinks used for other purposes. Every feature of its trim¬ 
mings and setting is intended to best serve the butler’s needs. 

The waste matter from the butler’s sink is not like that from the 


kitchen sink; hence the waste pipe is not necessarily so large, nor is a 
grease-trap so badly 



needed. Grease in 
considerable quan¬ 
tities finds its way 
into kitchen-sink 
waste pipes. It 
floats on the stream 
of waste water as it 
travels through the 
pipe, and, being 
always next the in¬ 
terior surface, either 
adheres thereto on 
contact, or by a re¬ 
duction in tempera¬ 
ture is chilled and 
congealed, thus clinging to the pipe walls. Successive layers of 

grease are in this way accumulated, and the bore of the pipe is 
finally reduced so much that solid matter easily completes the stop¬ 
page. Forcing out, and then filling the pipe with boiling lye water, 
and again flushing with hot water, will usually remove most of the 
obstruction. Sometimes the lye loosens the grease in chunks, which 
cleg the pipe seriously at the first favoring point, and the pipe must 

then be cleaned manually. 

When once choked with grease, the pipe must ultimately be 
opened and cleaned by hand, often at material expense when long 
lines are deep underground. To avoid this trouble, various traps 
(of which two examples are shown in Fig. 33) have been designed to 



































34 


PLUMBING 


separate and collect the grease, either by flotation or by chilling 
generally by the former. Traps to collect the grease by flotation were 
formerly improvised by the plumber, being placed in the drainpipe just 
outside the building. This location left too much pipe subject to 
choking between the grease-trap and the sink \ and the trap itself 
often became a generator of bad odors in warm weather. 

The grease-traps now commonly furnished are placed in the 
kitchen under the sink, and frequently serve as the regular trap for 

the fixture. The grease 
is easily removed by lift¬ 
ing out the container or 
by skimming from the 
top. Hinged bolts with 
thumb-nuts secure the 
covers so that they can 
be easily and quickly 
opened and securely 
closed. 

Traps which chill 
the grease are not used 
so much as those acting 
by simple flotation, but 
they do the work per- 
Fig. 32 . Pantry sink. fectly. The chilling proc- 

cess is accomplished by 
means of a water jacket through which the cold-water supply passes. 
The water entering low, surrounds the wall of the pot trap within, 
and passes out high up on the opposite side (see fixture at left in 
Fig. 33). Circulation—or, rather, change of water—in the jacket, is 
dependent on the amount of water used at the fixtures. 

The usual slop sink is 18 by 22 inches and about 12 inches deep. 
Generally it is furnished mounted on a trap standard, as in Fig. 34, 
which serves the double purpose of support and waste-trap. 

Care should be taken before installing a fixture placed upon a 
trap standard, to examine carefully whether the seal of the trap is 
provided for by suitable interior partitions. It is not uncommon to 
find defects in the casting, if of iron or brass—or in the porcelain, if 
of that material—which would seriously affect the maintenance of the 










































PLUMBING 


35 


water seal. In fact, it is desirable in connection with slop sinks, as 
with all other fixtures, that the trap be of such a form as to show 
cleanly, even after being set in place, the position of the various por¬ 
tions which constitute the trap and maintain the water seal. 

The waste pipe is never less in diameter than 2 inches, and is 
usually 3 or 4 inches. The outlet is invariably through an open 
strainer. 

Slop sinks are made in all the materials common to other fixtures 
except natural stone. These sinks are to the chambermaid what the 
kitchen sink is to the cook. The shape and liberal-sized waste are 
well adapted to removing slop and scrub water. In the complete 
fixture, the sink is provided with an elevated tank and flushing rim, 

Supply 



Fig. 33. Types of Kitchen Sink Traps for Separating and Collecting Grease. 

to cleanse the fixture walls; also with hot and cold supplies for drawing 
water, rinsing mops, etc. The supplies usually connect between the 
valves, and terminate with a long spout with pail-hook and brace. 
The spout supports the pail over the center of the sink while filling. 
The ordinary slop sink is provided with hot and cold faucets; and as 
the rims of the cheaper kinds are plain flanges, no tank flushing is 

possible. 

Laundry Trays. These are made in all the materials used in 
other plumbing fixtures. Wood trays were formerly common but 
their unfitness because of absorption and odors, coupled with the 
increase in cost of lumber and the lessening in cost of the better 
materials, has effectually driven them out of the business. 













































30 


PLUMBING 


The same inherent objection to the use of wooden covers may be 
urged as to the use of that material for the body of the fixture. 

Trays are made singly and otherwise, but generally used in sets 
of two or three, except in the combination with sink already described. 

They are supported by a center 
standard or a metal frame, as best 
suits the material used. 

Some means of attaching wring¬ 
ers are provided, if possible. The 
waste is usually 2-inch. One trap 
answers for a set of trays. The 
size approximates 20 by 30 inches at 
top, with 15 inches’ depth. The 
walls are all vertical except the front, 
which inclines about 30 degrees, 
making the width at bottom con- 
siderably less than at top. Some 

makers furnish one trav with each 

%/ 

set, designed to serve as a wash¬ 
board, the interior of the front wall 
being corrugated like the surface of 
a portable washboard. The incli¬ 
nation of the front is about right for 
scrubbing, whether the tray or an 
ordinary board is used, and the sup¬ 
ports place the top of trays conven¬ 
ient to the work. 

All trays were formerly made with 
faucet-holes in the back; and the 
plumber furnished a hinged cover. 
Side-handle faucets were necessary 
to allow the cover to close, as holes 
for top-handle faucets would be so 
low as to make useless too much of 
the space above them. The faucet- 
holes were seldom fitted water-tight. Holes are not now made in 
trays umess ordered, and the side-handle wash-tray bibb is disap¬ 
pearing. They were always annoying. If placed with the handles 



Fig. 34. 


Slop Sink Mounted on Trap 
Standard. 




































PLUMBING 


37 


right and left as intended, the seat eonld not he examined, and 
no reaming or dressing of the faucet seat could be done without re¬ 
moving the faucet. When placed with the faucet handles facing each 
other, they were wrong-handed and too close together. It was awk¬ 
ward to supply air-chambers—especially so when all the faucet holes 
were equidistant from the top. When placed for one line of supply 
above the other, one line of holes was too low. These objections com¬ 
bined brought about the practice of omitting the covers, putting the 
supplies over the trays, and using regular sink faucets. Overflows are 
provided only when so ordered. 

Enameled backs with air-chambers and faucets are supplied with 
roll-rim enameled-iron trays. A complete set of three trays, with all 



Fig. 35. Set of Three Laundry Trays, with complete attachments and Fittings. 


attachments and fittings, is shown in Fig. 35. Flat-rim trays are 
made with or without faucet-holes, and are intended to have a hard¬ 
wood frame to secure them rigidly. The wood frame and cover can 
be had with the fixture, but the plumber often supplies them. Nickel- 
plated or plain brass wastes and traps .are furnished for trays, but 
the plumber can provide lead or cast-iron waste, if wanted. 

Water=Closets. Types of water-closets are innumerable, and 
are separable into classes according to principles of action. Porcelain 
and painted or enameled iron are the materials used. Porcelain is 
more.fragile, but has the better finish and is susceptible of a greater 
variety of design and ornamentation. I he all-\itreous body of 
water-closet china of to-day is far superior to the glazed clay ware 


















38 


PLUMBING 


of the past, which, depending only on surface impermeability, soon 
cracked badly, thus permitting of absorption, the forerunner of odors 
which no plumber’s skill could prevent, kaiameied iron has not so 
durable a surface, but will stand rough usage, and has the advantage 
of very seldom cracking from frost even though the water in the trap 


freezes. 

The greater relative advantage and durability of the porcelain 
closet over the best qualities of enameled-iron fixtures, should not be 
overlooked. There is less adherence of the foul wastes to a porcelain 
surface than to the enameled surface. It is also a fact that enamel 
is subject more or less to abrasion by the use of harsh scouring ma¬ 
terials, as well as to decomposition by uric acid and water-closet dis¬ 
charges, and is therefore not a very durable material. These state¬ 
ments can be confirmed by observation of closets which have been 
in use for a number of years. 

Iron closets of the better forms are used most in public places, 
stores, warehouses, etc. The pan closet, of iron, with earthenware 
bowl, is not now installed. For these, a trap was placed under the 
floor. The pan, operated by the same lever as the flushing valve, 
retained water, partially sealing the body from the bowl. The flush 
was by the swirling of a stream which entered tangentially under the 
rim. The bowls were round, as is necessary in all hopper closets 
thus washed, for water will not swirl in an oval bowl. 

The objection to the pan water-closet is principally due to the 
fact that the outer bowl or container is a receptacle of filth which can 
never be properly cleansed. When the pan deposits its contents in 
the lower portion of the fixture, a considerable amount of the filth 
is spattered upon the walls and is not subject to the cleansing effect 
of the stream of water which scours only the upper bowl. When the 
closet is operated, the odors from this concealed surface permeate the 
room in an objectionable manner. 

Tall round hoppers with swirling supply are yet frequently used 
in outhouses and other exposed places. No other form of closet will 
stand such locations under like conditions. The waste-trap is not 
placed immediately under the hopper, as in other forms, but down 
below the freezing depth—five feet as a rule. The supply valve is 
also placed below freezing, and is operated by a pull or by seat-action. 
These closets are continuous or after-wash , according to the style of 







PLUMBING 


39 


valve used. Such an outfit is the simple frost-proof closet of the 
market. Tall oval hoppers with valve and slotted spud attached, 
swirl or rather direct the water sideways in both directions, but not 
effectively. The tank supply is also inefficient when delivered through 
a slotted spud under the common flanged rim. Short oval and round 
hoppers, with valve or tank supply operated by a pull or by seat-action, 
fitted to “S” S,” and S” or “P” traps, for lead or iron pipe 

floor connection, make up several hundred closet combinations, each 
differing in some respect from the others. These are the poorest 
types of water-closet. 

A sectional view of the Combined Hopper and Trap pedestal of 
to-day is shown in Fig. 36. It is made in one piece, in both porcelain 
and enameled iron. This form resulted from the separate hopper 
and trap fixtures before mentioned. The combined form has oval 
bowl and flushing rim for tank supply. 

The Wash-out closet is a modification of the combined hopper 
and trap, being formed with a dipping bed under the mouth of the bowl, 
which retains enough water to keep soil from sticking to the surface. 
The water-bed makes it necessary to discharge the contents at either 
front or rear of bowl. The back-outlet wash-out is most repulsive 
to view; in them the drop-leg, which the flush never washes thoroughly, 
is always in view, so that its filthy condition suggests cleansing by 
hand. The front-outlet wash-out, shown in section in Fig. 37, is of 
more inviting appearance; but the drop-leg, although hidden, is 
there just the same. 

Both the Wash-out and the Combined Hopper and Trap types 
have one fault in common. The trap almost always contains the soil 
from one usage. When the contents of the trap are flushed out after 
using, sometimes a similar mass refills it. Of course, two or three 
consecutive flushes would leave comparatively clean water in the trap, 
but this is not to be expected in regular usage. 

On certain occasions the wash-out may serve a useful purpose 
on account of the water-bed. The stools of children or the sick may 
thus be easily observed at the will of the physician or at the discretion 
of those in charge, while such is impossible where the soil is submerged 
at once. 

Pneumatic Siphon closets of various types have been put on the 
market. A good example of the type requiring two traps with an 




40 


PLUMBING 


air-space between, is shown in Fig. 38. A specially constructed 
flushing tank is connected with the air-space between the traps. 1 he 
falling of the flush water creates a partial vacuum in the bottom com¬ 


partment of the tank, which induces siphonage of the bowl contents. 

To maintain a plenum in the flushing compartment of the tank 
while the flush water is flowing down and into the closet, the air 


between the traps is extracted, being drawn up through the air-pipe 
into the tank. Atmospheric pressure in the room simply presses the 
water out of the bowl and upper trap when the pressure below it is 
sufficiently reduced. This water, in motion, added to that of the 
lower trap which has been drawn above its normal level in response 
to the vacuum, is sufficient to form the long leg of an ordinary siphon; 
and thus both traps would be entirely emptied were it not for the vent 



Fig. 86. Section of Combined Hop¬ 
per and Trap Closet. 



Wash-Out Closet. 


in the crown of the lower trap breaking the siphonage in time to save 
a water seal for the lower trap. 

The upper trap with water visible in the closet bowl in repose, is 
supplied by the after-fill, thus establishing conditions for the next 
action. The lower trap of such closets must be back-vented, and it 
is essential that the upper trap have no back vent. 

The proper action of the tank is necessary to operate a pneumatic 
closet. A closet constructed on any other principle can be flushed 
with a bucket, by hand, if its tank is out of order. When a pneumatic 
closet, however, gets contrary, pouring water into the bowl simply 
fills or overflows it. The outlet is air-bound, and no passage of water 
to the soil pipe can take place until the barrier of air between the traps 
is removed. 
































































PLUMBING 


41 


The closets now accorded first place and generally used in the 
best work, are of the Jet-Siphon type, illustrated by the sectional 
view, Fig. 39. These use more water than is necessary to flush 
other kinds.of closets, because a portion of the water is employed to 
produce the siphonage. A channel leading 
from the flush-water inlet to the bottom of 
the trap, conveys a stream of water to the 
trap leg, and injects it upward therein. The 
water in the channel has considerable ve¬ 
locity, and, being discharged into the water 
in the trap, imparts its energy to the whole 
mass, which, aided by the rise due to the in¬ 
coming water from the flushing rim, moves 
upward at an increased speed depending on 
the ratio of mass and jet. When the water 
in the trap has been lifted in this way to an 
extent where sufficient of it can fall over the weir into the out-leg of 
the trap, a siphonic movement begins, and true siphonage finally takes 
place, the cessation of which depends upon the lack of sufficient water 
to continue it. Before the closet tank is emptied, siphonage often 
sweeps out the trap thoroughly; and what water falls back into the 
bowl when the siphon breaks, together with the incoming jet and flush, 
causes a second siphonage. 

Accuracy in pointing the jet and in shaping the surfaces of its 

environment, are essential. If the 
surface above the jet-liole favors 
interference by the water flowing 
from the bowl, siphonage will be 
delayed and abortive, and may not 
take place at all. So, also, if the 
jet is not directed so as to main¬ 
tain approximate concentricity in its 
travel through the mass of water, 
its energy is not expended to advan¬ 
tage, and failure is likely. 

There is no excuse for iron closets not siphoning perfectly. The 
iron pattern can be altered until it gives the best effect in practice, 
after which all closets cast from it should do the same. M ith porce - 



Fig. 39. Section of Jet-Siphon Closet. 


i_ A,r rFlush 

E (o) 



Fig. 38. Section of Pneu¬ 
matic Siphon Closet, with 
Two Traps and Inter¬ 
vening Air-Space. 


























































42 


PLUMBING 


lain ware, however, every closet made requires the same skill in 
design; and notwithstanding how perfectly the closet may be formed 
and the jet-hole cut, shrinkage in the kiln during tne drying and 
burning process is apt to warp the wall and change the product so 
that it will not act properly. Closets of both materials, apparently 
perfect, often fail when first tried after installation, owing to foreign 
matter or fragments of enamel, clay, or iron lodging in the jet and 
changing its action. Usually these obstructions are easily removed 
by the plumber. 

The jet principle has been added to the Combined Hopper and 
Trap closet before mentioned, producing in it a siphonic action result¬ 
ing in very much improved service over that of the simple form. With 
the jet-action, the Combined Hopper and Trap is generally termed 
a Wash-Down Siphon. The so-called “jet” is applied in tw T o ways. 
In some makes, the flush rim has an extra large and specially formed 
fan-wash feature, which directs down the back wall of the bowl a 
sluice-like stream. This stream, in addition to wetting the paper and 
forcing it down into the water, where it will be promptly carried out, 
sweeps round the curve of the bowl outlet in such a way as to lend its 
force to the water in the trap to produce apparent and not infre¬ 
quently true siphonage. 

Another form of the wash-down siphon is provided with a channel 
from the flush inlet, down outside the back wall of the bowl, to near or 
even below the water-level in the bowl, where the jet enters through a 
slit. The action is much the same as with the special fan-wash 
mentioned, but is generally superior in siphonic effectiveness. 

Jet-siphon closets are not provided with vent openings in the 
closet proper, except for the local bowl ventilation. Wash-out traps 
are, or should be, vented. The simple hopper and trap should be 
rented in the trap. Wash-down siphons, generally, are not vented, 
but it is permissible to vent them low down in the outlet leg of the trap. 

All closets for indoor use should have flushing rims. In all 
earthenware closets and in some forms of iron closets, the rims are 
made integral; but the iron rims are, as a rule, separate pieces, form¬ 
ing a water channel around the bowl. The bottom, inner edge of the 
iron rim hugs the wall of the bowl as closely as practicable, and the 
bulk of the water falls through regularly spaced serrations. Various 
provisions in the shape of barriers opposite the flush inlet, per- 






PLUMBING 


43 


forated race-way shelves along the rim above the exit openings, etc., 
are made to insure the rim filling and flushing properly all around. 

All kinds of closets were formerly made without regard to the kind 
of seat to be used. Boxed-in cabinet seats, self-supporting, were 
universal. These gave way to seat and frame, with wall and leg 
support. To-day closets are commonly made with base flanges 
designed to support the weight of the person, and are provided with 
lugs or seat-shelf for attaching the seat directly to the bowl, as seen in 
Fig. 40. Metal post hinges are best in every way, if well made and 
strong. The competition goods, however—made to sell rather than 
use —are so light as neither to keep the seat in place nor to aid in hold¬ 
ing it together under the severe strain. The hinged wood-cleat seats 
bolted to the closet are strong, but are objectionable because they 
cannot be kept dry or clean under the 
cleat. 

Closets are operated with pull or 
push-button tanks requiring the attention 
of the user; and are also made of the seat- 
action type. Children are likely to be for¬ 
getful, and visitors to public toilet rooms 
indifferent, to such an extent that auto¬ 
matic closets are desirable for public 
and schools. 

Closets are fitted with two styles of 
tanks—one placed about 7 feet from the 
floor and serving with a flush pipe never more than lj inches in 
diameter; and the other placed low down, as close to the bowl 
as connections will permit. Examples of the high-tank and loiv - 
tank arrangements are shown in Figs. 41 and 42, respectively. The 
low tanks are wider and deeper than the high style, but do not extend 
out from the wall so much. The low position delivers the water 
at much less velocity than the elevated style, and, to secure the utmost 
speed and the volume necessary, the flush connection is never less than 
2-inch in a low-tank closet. The rim and jet channel are proportion¬ 
ate! v larger in bowls intended for use with low tanks. High tanks 
are about 17 by 9 by 10 inches. Sheet lead and sheet copper are used 
for closet-tank linings. Some kinds of water, through galvanic action, 
attack the soldering of the seams in copper-lined tanks with more 




Fig. 40. Closet with Base Flange 
Support, and with Lugs for 
Attaching Seat. 









44 


PLUMBING 


effect than where lead alone is used. Generally, however, copper* 
lined tanks give satisfaction if the copper is heavy enough (12 to 1G oz.) 
and properly put in. Some makers lock-seam the linings water-tight, 
and solder on the outside before placing the copper in the wood case. 

On account of the greater depth of low 
tanks, swelling of the wood case has, 
doubtless, been the cause of most of the 
trouble experienced with this type. When 
put together in the factory, the wood is 
very dry, and after being used for a short 
time, increases in height as a result of 
swelling from dampness. If the lining be 
tacked to the wood at bottom and top, in¬ 
jury is sure to result. If tacked at the top 
only, the copper will soon be support¬ 
ing the water without help except where 





t> 



Fig. 41. High-Tank Arrangement 
of Closet Fixtures. 



Fig. 42. Low-Tank Arrangement of 
Closet Fixtui’es. 


the connections are attached. It is now the practice to omit fastening 
the lining. Very great care has been found necessary with ball cocks 
for low tanks, in order to secure proper after-fill, the flush connection 
being too short to aid much in resealing the bowl with its drainings. 



















































PLUMBING 


45 


Low tanks flush with much less noise than high ones, and permit 
placing the closet under windows and low ceilings. Low ones require 
more width on account of the tank, and more depth from the wall to 
the front, as the seat and lid must be placed far enough forward to be 
thrown back and remain leaning against the front of the tank. Low 
tanks are provided with ventilated covers; while the high pattern, 
which is out of children’s reach, 
is left open at the top. The fewer 
working parts in a tank, the less 
likely it is to get out of order. 

A type of seat-action closet 
very seldom placed in private 
houses, is that with closed metal 
tank, as represented in Fig. 43. 

Depressing the seat opens a valve 
in the supply, and the water passes 
up through a flush pipe into a 
closed tank. The air in the tank 
is compressed until the air-pres¬ 
sure counterbalances that of the 
water. When the seat is released, 
the supply valve closes; and a 
valve is opened, establishing com¬ 
munication between the closet 
and the tank. The compressed 
air then expels the water in the 
tank, flushing the closet just as a 
large supply with corresponding 
pressure would do without a tank. 

Closed-tank closets depend on Fig. 43. Seat ^ction ck»set with closed 

pressure. The space occupied by 

the air in the tank is inversely proportional to the pressure; hence, 
even in heavy pressure, considerable of the tank’s capacity is yet 
occupied by air when equilibrium is established; and the less the 
pressure, the smaller the amount of water it is possible to get into the 
tank. They are therefore not fit for very light pressures, though they 
sometimes serve well in the basement of a building where failure 
would be certain on the upper floor. 


























4G 


PLUMBING 


Condensation on metal tanks is annoying. Open tanks of porce¬ 
lain and iron are used more or less, but sweating is hard to overcome. 
Zinc paint and ground cork finishes have been employed with some 
satisfaction; and drip-cup collars discharging into the flush just under 
the tank have served in this capacity, but nothing overcomes the 
sweating so well as a tight wood case, insulated metal cases not 
excepted. Some makes of the pressure-tank closet require too much 
weight on the seat for successful operation by a child, and children 
would as a rule leave the seat too soon to allow the tank to fill reason¬ 
ably well. The flush pipe of pressure closets is from a few inches to 
four feet in length. The after-fill is accomplished by projecting the 
flush connection into the tank an inch or more, and drilling a J-inch 
hole or less through it near the bottom of tank. The rapid flow 
ceases when the water-level falls to the upper end of the inward- 
projecting flush connection, and the after-fill drains into and down 
the flush slowly. 

The flush fittings of an open tank consist essentially of a valve 
to admit water to the flush pipe; an overflow always open to the flush 
pipe; and a lever and connection, with chain and pull or button, to 
open the flush valve. A simple example of these is the siphon goose¬ 
neck, with flush-valve disc on one end and lever connection at the 
other. Prongs extend below the disc to guide and keep it in place. 
The overflow is through the gooseneck. Lifting the gooseneck an 
instant permits enough water to flow down the flush to start the 
siphon through it when the pull is released. The tank then siphons 
to the lower end of the gooseneck arm. 

Where shortness of flush pipe or form of closet requires a decided 
after-fill, this is secured by special provision in the flush fittings, or 
by leading some of the supply delivered by the ball cock into the 
overflow. 

The supply fittings of a closet tank consist merely of a ball cock 
of suitable form. For light pressure, simple leverage suffices. For 
heavy pressure, the inlet in the valve would have to be too small, or 
the ball too large and stem too long, for a small tank, if simple lever¬ 
age were employed. Therefore compound-leverage cocks are usually 
substituted where the pressure contended with is over 30 pounds. 
There are ball cocks made in which the buoyancy of the ball merely 
operates a small secondary valve in a way to establish the initial 




PLUMBING 


47 


pressure over a disc of larger upper surface than that of the under side 
which covers the main water inlet of the cock. The disc is thus ef¬ 
fectually seated, regardless of the pressure; and a 4-inch ball may be 
arranged to close almost any size valve against any pressure. 

When the cock is attached through the bottom of the tank, no 
precaution against sound is necessary. Y\hen the cock is fitted in 
high up, a pipe from the delivery is extended to near the bottom of tank 
for the purpose of muffling the sound of the water as it fills the tank. 
An unmuffled delivery and a high-tank flush make considerable noise 
when the closet is flushed, and are suggestive and very embarrassing 
to sensitive people. Silent action is therefore the goal for which 
many strive. Silence at the expense of thoroughly washing the closet 
surfaces and flushing out the contents, is not desirable; some noise 
is necessary to the rapidity of action essential to thorough scouring 
and evacuation. 

Tanks requiring the flush valve to be held off the seat during 
the entire flush, are now no longer installed. Perfect silence in the 
flush pipe of a high-tank closet has been obtained by a type of flush 
fittings that permits the pipe to hang full of water. The flush valve 
being opened, water begins to flow into the closet immediately. When 
the valve closes, no air having access at the upper end of the flush, the 
pipe remains filled. The flush valve of such a closet must close 
absolutely water-tight to prevent continual dribbling into the bowl. 

Of late years, direct-flushing valves of many forms have been a 
feature of water-closet design. These valves make the individual 
closet tank unnecessary. Direct-flushing closets, a type of which 
is shown in Fig. 44, have the same advantage as the low tank in the 
matter of being placed where high closets cannot conveniently be 
arranged. A check to their more general adoption has been the lack 
of large supplies in residences and other buildings. 

The possibility that the house system of water supply may be 
contaminated from the water-closet if the water supply is directly 
connected to the water-closet fixture, should not be overlooked. Al¬ 
though this contamination is more likely to take place in the operation 
of the older types of closets, such as the pan closet and the plunger 
type, it is not of rare occurrence in connection with later types, espe¬ 
cially the so-called frost-proof fixture. If the pressure is materially 
lowered in the street main by accident or otherwise, it sometimes 



48 


PLUMBING 


t 


happens that water may be drawn back into the house system by 
siphonage from a water-closet or like fixture, thus of course incurring 
the possibility that germs of disease may be brought into the water 
supply used for domestic purposes. The use of a tank into which 
the water is first drawn, obviates this danger. 

The ordinary dwelling or storehouse supply can be made to 
operate successfully by placing an accumulating chamber on the 
branch to the closet, and having a check-valve on the street side of it, 
so that the water cannot flow back when the pressure falls as a 
result of drawing at other points. In such cases the pipe between the 
accumulator and the closet must be the usual l j-inch size. Closets 
thus fitted are really only pressure-tank closets with the flush con¬ 
trolled by a direct-flushing valve to be operated at will instead of 
automatically by seat-action. 

In all tank installations, the direct method is easily employed by 
carrying the proper size flush main directly to the closets, independ¬ 
ently of the supply for other fixtures. This is recommended in 
buildings having numerous closets. One tank, with large flushing 
main, will serve all the closets, and thus the individual tanks and 
equipment are not needed. Furthermore, no trouble is then experi¬ 
enced in providing suitable space for the small tanks. The flushing 
valves may, if desired, be placed out of sight, and only the operating 
lever brought to view in a convenient position. A flushing valve has 
been made which, like the secondary-valve ball cock, works on the old 
Jennings diaphragm principle, using a “time” filling cup to establish 
the initial pressure over the diaphragm. Releasing the pressure over 
the diaphragm by means of the operating lever, opens the main 
channel and causes the closet to flush while the time chamber fills 
again. 

In this country and most others, the height of closets has always 
been uniformly 1G to 17 inches to top of seat. It is claimed that this 
height results in an unnatural position, and individual opinions 
against it have been voiced from time to time with little effect. Lately, 
however, more earnest attention has been given the subject of height, 
and there has been designed a closet considerably lower than usual, 
with the top sloping down toward the back. This form, it is 
said, induces the user to assume an upright position of body, 
relatively more closely conforming to that of the limbs, and favoring 




PLUMBING 


49 


unrestricted ac¬ 
tion of the intes- 
tines. It re¬ 
mains to be seen 
whether this 
form will result 
in any general 
departure from 
the old lines. 

Closets of¬ 
ten also serve as 
urinal s, espe¬ 
cially in private 
houses. For lim¬ 
ited service, this 
is not to be con¬ 
sidered an actual 
abuse of the fix¬ 
ture, though gen¬ 
eral use of dis¬ 
tinct urinal fix¬ 
tures is indispen¬ 
sable. 

Range Clos= 
ets. Batteries of 
individual clos¬ 
ets are usual in 
office buildings 
and many other 
such structures; 
but in schools 
a n d in m a n y 
p u b 1 i c places 
open to all class¬ 
es, ranges di¬ 
vided into stalls 
or co m p a r t- 



A 



Fig. 44. Direct-Flushing Closet Dispensing with Necessity of 
Tank. A Shows Hand-Flushing Valve; B Complete Fix¬ 
ture with Sectional View of Siphon Closet. 

Courtesy of the J. L. Mott Iron Works. 


ments have been considered a satisfactory solution of the problem. 























































































50 


PLUMBING 


The objections to the range type of fixture are inherent in the 
design. The fouling surface of a trough fixture is much greater than 
that of the number of individual closets to which the fixture corre¬ 
sponds, and certain parts of this surface are not subject to an adequate 
flushing action. A certain portion of the surface, much larger relatively 
than that in individual fixtures, is exposed to spattering with the 
filth, and is alternately wet and dry. It is also true that the method 
of applying the water for scouring purposes is much less satisfactory 
than with single closets. A further objection to the range fixture is 
that in general its material is less desirable for the purpose than the 
earthenware or porcelain used for closets. On account of these 
deficiencies, for some ten years past, individual closets have been 
used in public schools in certain cities which have given the most 
attention to this branch of sanitation, and their use is being ex¬ 
tended. 

Range closets have automatic flushing tanks acting at any 
required interval between flushes. The tanks are, as a ride, without 
moving parts, and give good service without much attention after the 
supply is once set to flush at the interval desired. Whether the 
users of a closet are indifferent or irresponsible, does not change the 
result of abuse; and the range type of closet overcomes many annoy¬ 
ances attending the use of ordinary individual closets in unsuitable 
places—institutions for the insane and feeble-minded, for example. 
Ranges, like seat-action closets, are not dependent on the user, who 
may forget to pull a chain or push a button and thereby leave the 
closet foul. 

Various forms of ranges are now operated on the siphon eduction 
principle. Siphonic eduction is accomplished in three ways—first, 
by the double trap and air-pipe to the tank indicated by the sectional 
view, Fig. 45, and operating exactly like the individual pneumatic 
closet already described; second, by a siphon outlet-end in which the 
water falls over a central weir that maintains the proper depth of 
water until the flush begins, and causes siphonage by breaking up 
and filling the channel as it passes through a constricted bend below. 
The latter method is shown in section in Fig. 46. Still another type 
of range is made to siphon by jet-action, just as the individual jet- 
siphon closet does, the trap providing a retaining weir which holds 
the water at the proper level in the range between flushes. 





PLUMBING 


51 


There are wash-out ranges with sloping weirs at the outlet to 
retain enough water to keep soil from sticking. These are open 
troughs, and the plumber provides the trap. Some siphon ranges are 
of the open-trough pattern, but the trap or the siphon outlet is a part 
of the fixture. All open-trough ranges can be supplied with a venti¬ 
lating section from which a large vent pipe may be carried to a stack 
in which a draft is insured by a hot flue or some other means. Such 
ventilation changes the air in the room; and by having lids to all the 
seats, odors from the entire trough may be uniformly removed by 



Fig. 45. 


Section of Range Closet, with Double Trap and with Air-Pipe to Tank to Cause 

Siphonic Eduction. 


leaving up one lid only, at the end opposite the vent pipe. Some 
forms, having individual flushing-rim bowls east integral with the 
section, are supplied by one general flush pipe, as indicated by the plan 
and elevation shown in Fig. 47. In these, each bowl is separately 
water-sealed, as the normal water-level is above the general conduit 
into which the bowls discharge. 

Other forms, which receive the entire flush at one end, are water- 
sealed between the seat holes. The seat-openings, instead of converg¬ 
ing like flushing-rim bowls, diverge downward, so that, as the water- 
level recedes in the sections during flushing, soil falls away from the 
surface by gravity instead of grinding against it. Therefore, so far 











































































52 


PLUMBING 


as cleanliness is concerned, the type with diverging surfaces hut with¬ 
out the scouring effect of flowing water in the openings is, in operation, 
the practical equivalent of the flushing-rim type with converging 
surfaces. The open-trough ranges, including the jet-siphon type, 
have perforated wash-down pipes along the sides and ends, which, 


however, have little value. The open troughs are made in cast 
sections as long as convenient, joined by flanges with rubber gaskets 

and bolts. S u i t- 
able feet or chairs 
for supports are 
furnished with these 
fixtures. 

Cast partitions, 
partitions and 
backs, and full 
compartment p a r- 
titions, with slat 
doors and indica¬ 
tors, are furnished 
to o r d e r in any 
style or combina¬ 
tion desired. For 
example, the range 
for a schoolroom 
may consist alto¬ 
gether of 24-inch 
sections or divi¬ 
sions, except one in¬ 
tended for the teach - 



Fig. 46. Section of Range Closet, with Siphon-Outlet End. 


ers’ use made 30 inches and fitted with door and full-length partitions 
to give a thoroughly private compartment. Ranges are usually made 
of cast iron, and almost invariably finished with enameled interior and 
painted exterior. Bowl or section ventilation is provided for where 
possible. Wood seats and covers are generally used; but enameled- 
iron top frames with hinged seats and covers, and rigid enameled seats, 
are also made. 

The lower trap of a double-trap range must be ventilated. All 
soil-pipe stacks into which ranges discharge, and fixtures connected 





























































































PLUMBING 


53 


to them, must be well protected against siphonage, because the volume 
of water discharged at one time by a range is sufficient to siphon traps 


that would retain their seals 
under most other conditions. 

Urinals. Sectional uri¬ 
nals are made of the same ma¬ 
terials and finish, and with 
much the same types of de¬ 
sign, as range closets. They 
are generally installed in the 
same classes of buildings as 
range closets; but such urinals 
will often be found in the 
same toilet-room with individ¬ 
ual closets. Roll-rim enam¬ 
eled troughs, with back and 
with simple perforated wash¬ 
down flush pipes on the back, 
are available. 




Fig. 47. Sectional Elevation and Plan of Range 
Closet Seat with Flushing-Rim Bowl Sup¬ 
plied from General Flush-Pipe. 


lipped, 

Flat-back types of both de- 


Single urinals are usually 
of porcelain, although some 
have been made of iron. The common types are plain or 
made in flat-back and corner designs. 



Fig. 48. Flat-Back Types of Single Urinals. 


signs are shown in Fig. 48. All have flushing rims. Direct-flushing 
valves of the same type as used on closets, adapted to the purpose. 












































































54 


PLUMBING 




Fig. 49. Automatic Urinal-Flushing Tanks. Tilting- 
Bucket Type at Left; Self-Siphoning at Right. 


and cocks of various types, are the means of flushing generally pro¬ 
vided for a single urinal. When two or more are placed in one toilet- 

room, an automatic 
tank with branched 
flush pipe is em¬ 
ployed. These tanks 
are of greater variety 
than those used with 
range closets. The 
tilting bucket, pivoted 
within a tank case, 
which empties itself 
periodically by means 
of the flow of water 
changing the center 
of gravity to the un¬ 
supported side and 
tipping it just before it overflows, is a familiar type of automatic 
urinal-flushing tank. The standard tank with immovable parts, which 
siphons automatically, is also prevalent. Examples of these types are 
illustrated in section in 

Fig. 49. • (f^L a 

Another design 
consists of a tank with 
common siphon, fitted 
with a ball cock which 
opens, instead of clos¬ 
ing, as the water in 
the tank lifts the balk 
The interval between 
flushes is governed by 
a small bibb cock, 
which may be turned 
on more or less so as 
to take greater or less 
length of time for the 
water in the tank to reach the ball. When water begins to lift the ball, 
the ball cock also admits water. From this point the tank fills 



Fig. 50. Urinal Stalls of Slate or Marble, Flushed by Per¬ 
forated Pipe, with Channeled and Guttered Floor. 

























































































PLUMBING 


55 


rapidly. The higher the ball is lifted, the faster the tank fills, so that 
by the time the water-level reaches a point where water begins to flow 
over the neck of the siphon, it is coming into the tank rapidly enough 
to more than keep pace with the overflow necessary to start the siphon. 
True siphonage, however, empties the tank much faster than the sup¬ 
ply can fill it; and the tank is soon empty, leaving the small bibb cock 
to admit water again slowly to where this action can be repeated. 

Individual urinals which siphon by admitting additional water 
to that which normally stands in the fixture, and various other types, 
will be best understood from a study of dealers’ catalogues. In good 
work, marble backs and partitions usually enclose the urinals on 
three sides. Marble and slate stalls of various construction, with 
channeled and guttered floor, as shown in Fig. 50, all washed by 
perforated pipes fixed along the surfaces, are frequently used in lieu 
of specific urinal fixtures. A thick base of slab material is sometimes 
used, the gutter and drain-hole being cut in it. Cast-iron gutters, 
galvanized or enameled, with an outlet-end adapted to a soil-pipe 
connection, are supplied by the makers. 

In describing the fixtures and trimmings that have been noticed, 
only salient features of form and principles of design have been con¬ 
sidered. Sufficient guidance to insure intelligent comparison of 
merits and skilful discrimination in selection, has been given. Cata¬ 
logue detail and illustration, and a view of the actual goods described 
therein, should, with what has now been given, insure the fullest 
understanding of the fixture branch of Plumbing. 

HOUSE WATER SUPPLY 

While the plumber is apt to give more attention to supply pipe, 
and to methods of installing it in buildings to secure specific service, 
water supply embraces also, in its broadest sense, the source and qual¬ 
ity of water and the means of conveying it to the building. Plumbers 
generally have little dealing with water supply outside of the house 
walls. Custom has fixed certain arbitrary sizes in ordinary work, to 
such a degree that the average plumber has generally ignored informa¬ 
tion on the flow of water through pipes. Indeed, he is so rarely in 
actual need of this knowledge, that it appears a burden to acquire and 
to fix permanently in his mind the simplest formula bearing on the 
subject. Enough information to determine approximate deliveries 



56 


PLUMBING 


and point the road to further research, will not be out of place in 
behalf of those who may need simple directions. 

The laws of gravity are the basis for the science of hydraulics, of 
which a prime factor of every problem is velocity . There is no excep¬ 
tion to the rule that all bodies falling freely, descend at the same rate- 
in round numbers, 16 feet for the first second, at the end of which the 
acquired velocity is one of 32 feet a second. This is the basis on 
which are formulated the laws of falling bodies, which, exhibiting 
what is known as velocity of efflux , together with loss by friction, must 
be considered when calculating the flow of water. 

There are three kinds of velocity— uniform, accelerated, and 
retarded. It is the last, and its cause, friction, that plumbers should 
be most interested in, as velocities calculated merely from the laws of 
falling bodies do not take account of friction, change of course, etc., 
which must be allowed for as causes diminishing the delivery of water 
through pipes. Briefly stated, the mysterious-looking Torricellian 
formula V 2gh = V, means only that velocity is found by extracting 
the square root of the product of the head multiplied by 2 X 32, g 
standing for the force of gravity, and h for the height. For example, 
a stream filling a 1-inch pipe, with 25 feet head of water, would have 
a velocity calculated thus: 2 X 32 X 25 = 1,600; and the square 
root of 1,600 = 40 = Velocity, friction not considered. 

The shape of the orifice through which water enters a pipe, has 
much to do with the amount of water that will enter it. Friction 
against the sides of the pipe, and change of direction due to bends and 
connections, occasion great variation from the theoretical flow. Not 
only is the character of the pipe surface and fittings to be considered as 
initial causes varying the delivery, but velocity, the all-important 
factor, must be reckoned with in every instance. With a velocity of 
10 feet per second in a pipe of comparatively smooth interior surface, 
the friction loss in pounds on one square foot of surface will be about 
2 ~ pound. If this velocity is increased or diminished, the factor of 
friction will vary accordingly, always in proportion to the square of 
the velocity. Suppose the velocity to be 20 feet instead of 10 feet per 
second; we then have, 10 squared equals 100, and 20 squared equals 
400. The square of these velocities is as 1 to 4, and as we assign a 
4-pound loss to ten feet velocity per second, on a stated amount of 
surface, the friction due to doubling the velocity should be four times 






PLUMBING 


57 


a \ pound = 2 pounds, showing that doubling the velocity increases 
the friction four-fold; trebling it increases friction nine-fold, etc. 

A column of water weighs .43 pound per square inch of base, per 
vertical foot. Therefore a vertical pipe 100 feet high, with 1-inch 
sectional area, filled with water, would contain 43 pounds, and a 
gauge at the bottom would show 43 pounds pressure. If the pipe 
were only J inch, or were 40 inches in diameter, the gauge would show 
the same pressure for the same vertical height—namely, .43 pound 
per square inch per vertical foot. A head of water expressed in feet, 
may be changed to pounds by multiplying the feet of head by .43. 
Pressure is made to read in feet of head by multiplying pressure per 
square inch by 2.3. A head of water is the number of vertical feet 
from level of source of supply to center of outlet or point of delivery. 

Diameter of the pipe has nothing to do with static head or pres¬ 
sure; but its relation to the size of the orifice from which the water 
is to be drawn has much to do with the amount of pressure lost by 
friction. If a faucet and supply pipe are of the same size, and we 
double the size of the pipe, the velocity of the water flowing through 
it is reduced three-fourths; and the friction is, under these conditions, 
but one-sixteenth what it was in the original size. Moreover, as in 
drawing similar amounts of water under the same head through a 
one-inch and a two-inch pipe, the amount of friction surface presented 
is twice as great in the one-inch as in the two-inch pipe, the friction in 
the one-inch can be shown to be 32 times as much as in the two-inch 
pipe- 

With the formula given, one can roughly approximate by finding 
the theoretical delivery and deducting a liberal percentage for friction, 
according to size, length of pipe, and head or pressure. r Ihe subject, 
however, is vast and tedious, introducing intricate calculations in 
higher mathematics when considered in detail with a view to extreme 
accuracy of results, and is a branch properly belonging to hydrodynam¬ 
ics, rather than suited to presentation at length here. Two tables 
are given, however, which with the rules for use, will be of value to 
those who fail to make further research. 

Table I shows the pressure of water in pounds per square inch 
for elevations varying in height from 1 to 135 feet. 

Table II gives the drop in pressure due to friction in pipes of 
different diameters for varying rates of flow. The figures given 




58 


NUMBING 


TABLE I 


Head 

in 

feet 

Pressure 
pounds per 
square inch 

Head 

in 

feet 

Pressure 
pounds per 
square inch 

1 Head 

in 
feet 

Pressure 
pounds per 
square inch 

1 

.43 

46 

19.92 

91 

39.42 

2 

.86 

47 

20.35 

92 

39.85 

3 

1.30 

48 

20.79 

93 

40.28 

4 

1.73 

49 

21.22 

94 

40.72 

5 

2.16 

50 

21.65 

95 

41.15 

6 

2.59 

51 

22.09 

96 

41.58 

7 

3.03 

52 

22.52 

97 

42.01 

8 

3.46 

53 

22.95 

98 

42.45 

9 

3.89 

54 

23.39 

99 

42.88 

10 

4.33 

55 

23.82 

100 

43.31 

11 

4.76 

56 

24.26 

101 

43.75 

12 

5.20 

57 

24.69 

102 

44.18 

13 

5.63 

58 

25.12 

103 

44.61 

14 

6.06 

59 

25.55 

104 

45.05 

15 

6.49 

60 

25.99 

105 

45.48 

16 

6.92 

61 

26.42 

106 

45.91 

17 

7.36 

62 

26.85 

107 

46.34 

18 

7.79 

63 

27.29 

108 

46.78 

19 

8.22 

64 

27.72 

109 

47.21 

20 

8.66 

65 

28.15 

110 

47.64 

21 

9.09 

66 

28.58 

111 

48.08 

22 

9.53 

67 

29.02 

112 

48.51 

23 

9.96 

68 

29.45 

113 

48.94 

24 

10.39 

69 

29.88 

114 

49.38 

25 

10.82 

70 

30.32 

115 

49.81 

26 

11.26 

71 

30.75 

116 

50.24 

27 

11.69 

72 

31.18 

117 

50.68 

28 

12.12 

73 

31.62 

118 

51.11 

29 

12.55 

74 

32.05 

119 

51.54 

30 

12.99 

75 

32.48 

120 

51.98 

31 

13.42 

76 

32.92 

121 

52.41 

32 

13.86 

77 

33.35 

122 

52.84 

33 

14.29 

78 

33.78 

123 

53.28 

34 

14.72 

79 

34.21 

124 

53.71 

35 

15.16 

80 

34.65 

125 

54.15 

36 

15.59 

81 

35.08 

126 

54.58 

37 

16.02 

82 

35.52 

127 

55.01 

38 

16,45 

83 

35.95 

128 

55.44 

39 

16.89 

84 

36.39 

129 

55.88 

40 

17.32 

85 

36.82 

130 

56.31 

41 

17.75 

86 

37.25 

131 

56.74 

42 

18.19 

87 

37.68 

132 

57.18 

43 

18.62 

88 

38.12 

133 

57.61 

44 

19.05 

89 

38.55 

134 

58.04 

45 

19.49 

90 

38.98 

135 

58.48 

































PLUMBING 


59 


are for pipes 100 feet in height. The frictional resistance in smooth 
pipes having a constant flow of water through them is proportional 
to the length of pipe. That is, if the friction causes a drop in pressure 
of 4.07 pounds per square inch in a 1 J-inch pipe 100 feet long, which 
is discharging 20 gallons per minute, it will cause a drop of 4.07 X 2 = 


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8.14 pounds in a pipe 200 feet long; or 4.07 4- 2 = 2.03 pounds in a 
pipe 50 feet long, acting under the same conditions. The factors 
given in the table are for pipes of smooth interior, like lead, brass, or 
wrought iron. 

Examples .—A 14-inch pipe 100 feet long connected with a cis¬ 
tern is to discharge 35 gallons per minute. At what elevation above 























































GO 


PLUMBING 


the end of the pipe must the surface of the water in the cistern be to 
produce this flow? 

In Table II we find the friction loss for a 1^-inch pipe discharging 
35 gallons per minute to be 5.05 pounds. In Table I we find a pres¬ 
sure of 5.2 pounds corresponds to a head of 12 feet,which is approxi¬ 
mately the elevation required. 

How many gallons will be discharged through a 2-inch pipe 
100 feet long where the inlet is 22 feet above the outlet? In Table I 
we find a head of 22 feet corresponds to a pressure of 9.53 pounds. 
Then, looking in Table II, we find in the column of Friction Loss for 
a 2-inch pipe that a pressure of 9.46 corresponds to a discharge of 
100 gallons per minute. 

Tables I and II are commonly used together in examples. 

A house requiring a maximum of 10 gallons of water per minute 
is to be supplied from a spring which is located 600 feet distant, and 
at an elevation of 50 feet above the point of discharge. What size 
of pipe will be required? From Table I we find an elevation or head 
of 50 feet will produce a pressure of 21.65 pounds per square inch. 
Then if the length of the pipe were only 100 feet, we should have a 
pressure of 21.65 pounds available to overcome the friction in the 
pipe, and could follow along the line corresponding to 10 gallons in 
Table II until we came to the friction loss corresponding most nearly 
to 21.65, and take the size of pipe corresponding. But as the length 
of the pipe is 600 feet, the friction loss will be six times that given in 
Table II for given sizes of pipe and rates of flow; hence we must 
divide 21.65 by 6 to obtain the available head to overcome friction, 
and look for this quantity in the table, 21.65 -4- 6 = 3.61, and Table II 
shows us that a 1-inch pipe will discharge 10 gallons per minute with 
a friction loss of 3.16 pounds, and this is the siae we should use. 

In calculating the contents of pipes, cylinders, and cisterns, 
where it is usual to correct the area found as a result of squaring the 
diameter by multiplying by .7854, before dividing by 231 for U. S. 
gallons, multiplication by the decimal may be omitted, and dividing 
by 294 instead of 231 will then give the same result. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 

1. What size pipe will be required to discharge 40 gallons per 
minute, a distance of 50 feet, with a pressure head of 19 feet? 

Ans. lj-inch. 





PLUMBING 


61 


2. What head will be required to discharge 100 gallons per 
minute through a 24-inch pipe 700 feet long? 


Ans. 52 feet. 


TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY 


There are various ways in which it may be necessary to obtain the 
water supply for a building. The usual course in cities and towns is 
to employ the Municipal W ater Works service. This, of course, settles 
the supply feature, and the plumber simply provides the house and yard 
pipe, f-ineh or larger main, according to the character of the work. If of 
lead, the pipe must be of strength according with the pressure. Any of 
the light-weight grades of lead supply will stand 1,000 pounds per square 
inch for a short time; and the usual strength used on 50 to 80-pound 
pipe will not burst under 1,400 to 1,600 pounds when new and un¬ 
strained. Under constant pressure, the enormous strain possible 
from water-hammer, and general deterioration from use, make it 
advisable to employ pipe which, when new, is 20 times as strong as 
that necessary to contain the pressure. No attention is necessary as 
to the strength of zinc-coated or tin-coated iron pipe; it will stand 
any pressure ordinarily encountered. 

The two general methods of supplying buildings with water are: 
(1) the direct system; and (2) the indirect or tank system. The direct 
method, generally employed in cities, places each fixture connected 
with the supply under the same pressure as the street main, unless a 
reducing valve is introduced, thus often subjecting the work to need¬ 
less high pressure and always to the widely varying conditions and 
quality of service incidental to such use. In the direct system it is 
good practice, where at all practicable, to pipe and fit the work gener¬ 
ally for pressure not exceeding 50 pounds per square inch, and then 
use a reducing valve to maintain such pressure as is required. 

The indirect method is almost always necessarily employed in 
isolated work; and even where municipal service is available, it is 


generally better for ordinary domestic purposes. With the indirect 
system, the connection with the street main is carried directly to a 
tank placed in the attic, or at some point above the highest fixture, as 
shown in Fig. 51. The supply to tank is regulated by a ball-cock 
which automatically shuts off the water when the tank becomes full, 
and opens and refills it again when water is drawn out. All the 
plumbing fixtures are supplied directly from the tank, and are there- 





62 


PLUMBING 


fore under a constant minimum pressure depending on the distance the 
fixtures are situated below the tank. The tank storage is a matter of 
great convenience during repair§ to street mains, aside from its ad¬ 



vantages of uniform pressure, reduced expense of fitting and main¬ 
taining low-pressure work, etc. 

In municipalities where the pressure in the main is not sufficient 
to carry the water up to the house tank in the attic, and in elevated 
situations, an automatic, electrically-operated rotary or other suitable 
form of pump is often installed to lift the water. A screw pump 
like that shown in Fig. 52 is especially adapted to this use when 


































































PLUMBING 


63 


equipped with an electric motor to start and stop automatically by 
means of a float in the tank operating an electric switch as shown in 
the engraving. 

Where steam pres¬ 
sure is available, steam- 
operated p umps are 
very frequently used, and 
are invariably arranged 
for automatic service 
whether there are engi¬ 
neers regularly in attend¬ 
ance or not. A device 
that may be attached to 
steam pumps for this 
purpose is shown in Fig. 

53. When the high-water 
line in the tank is reached, 
the float closes a valve 
in the pump discharge 
pipe, thus promptly in¬ 
creasing the pressure in 
it so as to actuate a pis¬ 
ton through a pipe con¬ 
nection from the pump 
discharge to the regula¬ 
tor beneath the piston 
head. The regulator is 
shown complete, in de¬ 
tail, partly in section, in 
Fig. 54. Raising the pis¬ 
ton shuts off the steam 
supply to the pump at 
the governor valve. 

When the water line in 
the tank is lowered, the 
float falls and the ball 
valve opens, relieving the pressure in the pump discharge pipe and 
allowing the steam governor valve to open by the action of the coun- 



FROM £__ 

STREETMA/NH 


[motor 


Fig. 52. Electrically-Operated Pump for Lifting 
Water to Tank. Automatically Started and 
Stopped by Means of Float Operating 
Electric Switch. 



















































































64 


PLUMBING 




Fig. 53. Steam Pump Equipped with Regulator Operated by Float in Tank 

Securing Automatic Service. 




























































































































































































































































































































































PLUMBING 


65 


terweights attached to the lever arm, as shown; and the pump then 
works regularly until the lifting of the float by the rising w r ater again 

closes the valve in the pump discharge and repeats the action de¬ 
scribed. 

Outside of corporations, the supply may be from an elevated 



BLOW-OFF COCK _-_ 

Fig. 54. Steam Pump Regulator (Shown Partly in Section) Automatically Operated by 

Valve Controlled by Float in Supply Tank. 


spring or stream, or from w’ells, cisterns, or other sources below the 
level of use. If the natural supply is high enough, it may be con¬ 
veyed into a tank of sufficient height without intermediate apparatus. 
Tanks inside the dwelling or house are best, ordinarily. 

Tanks for cold-water storage are made of various materials and 
in different shapes and sizes, according to the special uses for which 





























































































66 


PLUMBING 


they are required. For indoor use, copper-lined or lead-lined wood- 
case tanks without safe-pans, and wrought-iron or cast-iron tanks 

with safe-pans to catch the conden- 



favored by reason of superior fit¬ 
ness. Within limited dimensions, 
a durable and satisfactory tank-case 
can be made of heavy, well-fitted, 
and well-seasoned plank bolted to¬ 
gether with iron rods and nuts, as 

o 

shown in Fig. 55. For large sizes, 
heavy wood stays with tie-rods one- 
third of the way from each end, are 
added. With copper linings, but 
few nails should be used; and they 
should be so placed as to be cov¬ 
ered by the copper, the joints being 
soldered by soaking the best quality 
^ of solder into the seams. The lock- 


Fig. 55. Plan of Storage Tank in Case inpr of the Seams is shown greatly 
Made of Planks Bolted Together. # J 

exaggerated in the engraving. 

Cast-iron sectional tanks, like the form shown in Fig. 56, can be 
had in almost any size or shape. They are made up of plates planed 



Fig. 56. Cast-Iron Sectional Tank. 


and bolted together, the joints being made water-tight with cement. 
The sections are in convenient sizes, so that they can be handled 






















































































PLUMBING 


67 


easily, and conveyed without difficulty through small doorways or 
other openings to any part of the house. These tanks are easily set 
up, and are practically indestructible. Open and closed wrought-iron 
tanks, plain or galvanized, are often used, but are not so easily handled; 
and the larger sizes require to be riveted together and calked in place. 

Lead-lined tanks are most frequently used for ordinary house 
plumbing. The linings were formerly wiped-in without exception. 
Sweating the lead together with a torch flame is however, quite as 
durable, and is much cheaper. To sweat-in a lining, take the exact 
length and breadth of the tank, trying at different points to be sure of 
allowing for any variations. Then cut out the bottom lining just the 
shape of the tank bottom, one and one-half inches larger each way, 
less twice the thickness of the lead. This allows three-quarters of an 



Turned Up. 

inch to turn up all around; and the bottom will just fit when the side 
pieces are in place. Mark off the bottom all around, as shown by 
the dotted lines in Fig. 57; and turn up the edge. With the inter¬ 
section of the lines A as a center, and the termination of one of them 
as a starting point, describe the line B, and cut oft the corner outside 
of it. Then work the corner up square without a kink. If the lead 
is heavy, a little heat will make it work better. After working-up, 
the lead at the corners will be much thicker than along the sides; 
this may be needed in stretching out, at some of the corners. 

When the edges and corners of the bottom are formed, clean the 
edges and about three-eighths of an inch down the outside all around, 
and rub the clean part with sperm candle. Next make a mark, say 
three feet from one end on each side, as at E and F, Fig oS. Then, 
on lines C and D, push the edges down inside, and fold the ends over 
as indicated by the dotted lines. 











6S 


PLUMBING 



Fig. 59. Side and End Sheet of Lead 
Propped Up to Enable Seam to be Set 
and Soldered. 


The bottom is now ready to be put in the tank, but it must wait 
until the sides and ends are in. If the sides and ends are light enough 
to be handled after joining like a ring, cut out a strip half an inch 
longer than will exactly go around the tank inside, equal to its depth 

plus the thickness of the tank wood 
for a flange at the top, as shown at 
J, Fig. 63. Then clean a half-inch 
of the under side and edge of the 
end that is to show in the seam, 
and three-quarters of an inch of the 
side that comes in contact with it, 
at the other end. The lead may 
then be propped up in the position 
shown in Fig. 59, by means of tres¬ 
tles and poles or in any other conven¬ 
ient manner; and the seam may be 
set, as shown, upon a board of hardwood, and the solder sweated 
into the lap by means of the torch and blowpipe. Solder for this kind 

of work should be three-fifths tin and two-fifths lead. A hardwood 

« 

board is used because it will not smoke and burn like soft wood. 

When the seam is made in this way, it shows inside the tank, 
and a good joint where the bottom seam crosses it can be made with 
ease, while one is 
never quite sure of 
the result if the 
seam crossed is on 
the other side. 

Another meth¬ 
od is to cut the 
lead the exact 
length that will go 
around the tank, 
clean the edges, butt 
them together over 
a hardwood board, as shown in Fig. 60, and burn them together 
instead of soldering, This can be done by using, instead of solder, 
a well-cleaned strip of lead about half an inch wide. Sperm 
candle will also answer as flux for burning. A piece of steel 



Fig. 60. Another Method of Joining the Two Ends of the Lead 
Sheet. The Ends are Butted against Each other Over 
the Hardwood Board and Fused Together. 













































































































































PLUMBING 




Fig. 61. Method of Joining End 
and Side Linings to Bottom 
Lining. 


or iron is best to place under the seam when burning, as more 
heat is required to do the work. An old crosscut saw blade, 
fastened to a board, serves well for such seams. The bottom 
edge of the side lining should be cleaned 1 J-inches wide, as shown 
at II, Fig. 61, which indicates how the 
cleanings on the bottom and the side and 
end lining come together in the tank. It 
is a good plan to run the soil brush 
around the bottom edge of the lining, as 
shown at 0 and P, Fig. 61. The soil 
keeps the solder from sweating too deep, 
and enables the seam to fill quickly. 

Further than this, however, soiling, as 
in the preparation for wiping, is not 
necessary for sweated seams. 

. When the side lining “loop” is 
ready, lift it into the tank, square it out, 
flange over at the top, and secure the flange with brass, copper, or 
galvanized nails. Next, mark distances in the tank corresponding 
to those at E and F in Fig. 58. Then catch the bottom at the folded 
edges (Fig. 58), and lower it into the tank. As the ends are folded, 
there is room to stand inside the tank at the ends. Pull the folds 

upright so that marks E and F can be seen, 
and slide the bottom back or forward until 
E and F correspond with the marks made 
c __ M ^ = on the side lining. The ends may then be 

pushed down in place, and will be found 
to fit exactly if the measures have been prop¬ 
erly taken. 

After dressing down the bottom and 
pressing the turned-up edges against the 
sides and ends, sweat the bottom to the 
sides in the same way as the other seam 
was made, being sure that the solder 
“takes” well to both pieces of lead. 

When a tank is large, handle the sides and ends in two or more 
pieces, always having the seams that are to be made in place come 
at the ends of the tank, as the ends are stiffest and best to brace against. 



Fig. 62. Method of Keeping 
Lead in Place While Mak¬ 
ing Upright Seam in 
Tank. 


























































70 


PLUMBING 


Sv K 


■l 






Fig. 63. Section Showing Lead Lining in Place, and 
Method of Bracing for Making Upright Seams. 


Fig. G2 shows the method of keeping the lead in place while making 
the upright seam in the tank, I being the tank wood, JJ the lining, K 
the straight edge, and M the brace. K is a piece of hardwood fastened 
to a strip of steel (a piece of an old framing square), as shown in the cut, 

the wood being about four 
t nail inches wide by two feet long, 
and the steel L sticking half 
an inch out from the bev¬ 
eled edge of the wood. This 
steel edge keeps the lead 
from buckling under influ¬ 
ence of the flame while 
blowing the seam, and is 
much better than a wood 
straight-edge, as it can be applied at the proper place with no fear of 
its burning or annoying the operator by smoking from the heat. 

Fig. 63 shows the lining in place, and the method of applying the 
brace and straight-edge to the seams that are to be blown upright in 
position. Letters and parts in Figs. 62 and 63 correspond, N in 
Fig. 63 being the bottom. 

Unless the supply is regular and abundant, and the storage by 
gravity, outside tanks of ordinary 
capacity, if of wood, are expensive 
and troublesome from leakage 
due to shrinkage of staves above 
the water-line and from necessity 
of painting; if of iron, from 
change in character of water, 
freezing, cost of boxing, delivery 
to, and discharge from, in a frost¬ 
proof manner, etc. 

A spring supply will answer Fig 64 
if of sufficient elevation to store 
water by gravity; or a waterfall above or below the house level may be 
handled with a hydraulic ram if 5 to 15 per cent of the water regularly 
available will suffice. 

Hydraulic Ram. A ram uses the energy of a fall to elevate part 
of the water passing through it—one-sixth or less, according to the 



Illustrating Principles of the 
Hydraulic Ram. 






























PLUMBING 


71 


fall and the height to which the water is to be delivered. Four feet 
of fall is about as little as can be utilized to advantage; and fifty feet 
of liberal-size drive-pipe, even though it has to be coiled with uniform 
fall, is necessary to give the water momentum enough to get the best 
results. 

Fig. 64 illustrates the elementary principles of a simple ram. 
A represents the source or spring; B, the drive (supply) pipe; C, a 
valve opening upward; D, an air-chamber; E, a valve tending to 
close downward by gravity; and F, the discharge pipe. Inaction, 
the water passes through the ram and out at a waste valve F, which 
is open downward until sufficient velocity is attained to lift and close 
the waste exit. There being then no other means of egress, the 
check-valve C, opening upward to the discharge pipe, is forced open; 
and the energy of acquired momentum delivers water into the air- 
chamber D and discharge pipe F, until the pressure on the waste 
valve falls too low to hold it up (closed). The check-valve C then 
closes, and retains the water in the discharge; and the waste valve 
E falls open by gravity, leaving a comparatively unrestricted exit 
through which the water continues to waste with increasing force 
until the velocity in the drive pipe is again sufficient to repeat the 
impulsive delivery. Rams are made with large air-chambers, to 
cushion the initial strain of impulse, and should have a delivery pipe 
at least one size larger than the ram opening, especially if working 
under light fall or high delivery. 

Cisterns are seldom so deep or situated so low that ordinary 
house force-pumps within doors cannot be used. The distance of the 
cylinder above the lowest level from which water may need to be 
pumped, is limited in all pumps alike—33 feet 9 inches atmospheric 
lift under 'perfect conditions, and about 25 feet under the most perfect 
practicable pump arrangement. Indeed, the velocity of flow into the 
cylinder at any point above 20 feet is so slow that in practice the cylin¬ 
der should be well within a twenty-foot limit in vertical distance from 
the water; and the closer the better. A foot-valve strainer at the end 
of a cistern suction pipe will keep the pipe filled and avoid frequent 
exhausting of the air before water can be obtained. When a foot 
valve is used, means of draining the suction to below frost line, when 
necessary, must be provided. 






J 


ITALIAN MARBLE KITCHEN SINK 

The Federal Company. 






































































PLUMBING 


PART II 


PUMPS 

A common suction pump, shown in Fig. 65, is the type generally 
used in cisterns or other very short lifts. B is the plunger; C, the 
bottom valve; and D, the plunger valve. When the plunger is drawn 
up, a vacuum is formed in the cylinder, and water flows in through C 
to fill it. When the plunger is forced down, valve D opens and allows 
the water to flow through the plunger while 
C remains closed. Water is thus raised by 
the plunger at each stroke and flows from the 
spout in an intermittent stream. The atmos¬ 
pheric limit is indicated in the engraving; 
but, as before stated, the practical lift is 
taken at 20 feet or less in pumps having the 
plunger valve at the ground level. The 
plunger in this kind of pump is made to 
trip the bottom valve and drain the pump 
at will, without a waste-hole or special cock, 
by merely lifting the handle as high as pos¬ 
sible. 

When the surface of the water is a 

greater distance below the pump stock than 

ordinary suction can reach effectively, the 

cvlinder and its working parts must be placed Fig. 65. common Type of sue 
, . . .. />•].(», i ,. . tion Pump for Short Lifts. 

within the limits ot lift by suction. I his 

form is termed a lijt pump, one type of which is shown in Fig. 66. 
This particular form is confined to ordinary open shallow wells or 
deep cisterns. It drains automatically through a waste-hole always 
open below frost line, located in the stock above the working barrel. 
There is no limit except the strength of the parts, to which a good 
lift pump will not bring water if the cylinder is near enough to the 
water and the pump in good order. 



4, WATER LEVEL 
//V WELL 

i 


■- : i 






























74 


PLUMBING 


The forcing feature of a pump, making it a lift and force pump , is 
secured by working the rod of an ordinary lift pump through a stuffing 
box, and adding an air-chamber to take care of the surplus water 
pumped on the up-stroke and to expel it while the plunger is being 
lowered. All the water is pumped on the up-stroke of the plunger, 
in these pumps; and the expulsion of the surplus through the con¬ 
stricted spout, giving the familiar steady stream, is due to the action 
of the air compressed in the chamber. 

Double-acting lift and force pumps draw 
water by suction on both strokes, and act¬ 
ually expel it by force into the discharge, 
the suction and force being alternate in the 
same cylinder on both sides of a solid 
plunger. The air-chamber in these cush¬ 
ions the delivery. 

It may be stated here that hot water can¬ 
not be lifted by suction, because the boiling 
point of water depends upon the pressure 
on it. Therefore, any endeavor to create 
a vacuum with a pump results in vapor 
rising so freely as to prevent accomplishing 
appreciable results. Warm water can be 
forced by having the pump below the 
source, and practically allowing the water 
to flow into the pump by gravity. 

In wells, whether driven, tubular, or open, 
Adapted to Long Lifts™ 5 it is advisable to have the cylinder very near 

the bottom. The pump standard, for hand 
use, should be strong, well-made, of 10-inch stroke, with rocking 
fulcrum, and with rod guided in perfect alignment; the handle lever¬ 
age at least 6 to 1; lift pipe not less than 2 inches; rod, hollow, gal¬ 
vanized or wood; cylinder, at least twice the length of stroke, brass- 
lined, and not larger in diameter than the lift pipe—the whole being 
such that all valves can be withdrawn through the pipe and standard 
for repair or renewal without disturbing either standard body or pipe. 
A drain valve to empty standard and pipe below freezing point, is 
essential. A pump outfit of this character, to deliver water at the 
ground level, will require at the handle grip, G to 8 pound's force on 



























PLUMBING 


75 


40-foot, 10 to 12 pounds on 50-foot, and 14 to 16 pounds on 60-foot 
wells. The lift pipe (above cylinder) should not be plain iron pipe. 
Polished iron cylinders ought not to be used, even though they are to 
be always submerged; incrustation will make it difficult to withdraw 
the cup-leathers—to say nothing of other objections. 

The trouble with cylinders of larger diameter than the lift pipe, 
is the time and expense of withdrawing pipe and standard for repairs; 
and, of course, the power to pump with them equals the total lift multi¬ 
plied by the sectional area of the cylinder in inches. 

The importance of cylinder diameter will be better understood 
by comparison. A total lift of 100 feet, with cylinder 2 inches in 
diameter, gives 135 pounds, which, with the handle leverage at 6 to 1, 
will be lifted with from 22 to 25 pounds’ force according to kind of 
rod, tightness of stuffing box, size of lift pipe, etc. With the same 
outfit and conditions, merely substitute a cylinder of 4 inches’ diameter, 
and 540 pounds will then require to be lifted, which, with the same 
ratio of leverage, calls for over 90 pounds’ force on the handle to lift the 
water. Then, if the lift pipe is materially smaller than the cylinder, 
the increase in velocity, when the cylinder water enters the lift pipe 
calls for an additional force that would astonish one. This should 
make it plain why so many pump standards are wrecked, bolts worn 
off, holes worn oblong, handles broken, cylinders continually needing 
new valves, and owners disgusted; it is all due to the lack of proper 
proportion of parts, and the enormous amount of needless work thus 
occasioned. 

Total lift is the distance from the level of the source pumped 
from, to the point of discharge. This includes height to elevated tank, 
if there be one, and the distance from cylinder to water, if the cylinder 
is above the water; yet many mechanics are inclined to ignore the 
latter on the ground that the atmosphere lifts the water to the cylinder. 
It does, in fact; but the power of the vacuum which permits the atmos¬ 
phere to lift the water, is as great as the weight of water so lifted, and 
the vacuum itself is produced and maintained by the energy of the 
person pumping. 

The pump being outside for the purpose of sprinkling, filling ves¬ 
sels, etc., need not interfere with employing it to deliver water under¬ 
ground to the house and up to elevated tank. A cock-spout, a packed 
stuffing box, and a line of pipe below freezing from lift pipe to tank, 




76 


PLUMBING 


are the essentials. Delivery to tank should be made over top of tank; 
and the line should have a cock and drain so that the tank pipe can be 
emptied when desired, and so that full force for sprinkling can be 
had by cutting off the tank line. When pumping to the tank, it is 
merely necessary to have the cock-spout closed and the shut-off of the 
tank line turned on. 

The advantages of having the pump indoors, at the sink, are, 
(1) that water may be pumped for use directly; and (2) that it is not 
necessary to go outside in bad weather in order to fill the tank. The 
indoor pump will also conveniently serve ordinary purposes when 
other water fixtures of the house are out of repair. 

Small gasoline engines, by means of pumping jacks or other 
methods of actuating, are often used to operate pumps. Hot-air 
engines are also frequently used for pumping purposes, such as lift¬ 
ing water to upper floors of buildings whenever the city pressure 
may be inadequate. 

Windmills are a favorite means of operating outside pumps in 
localities where the mean wind velocity is high enough to run them 
economically. Light winds, and water at great depths, both con¬ 
tribute to increasing the size and cost of mills; while spasmodic 
winds require great storage capacity. If the mean wind velocity is 
under 7 miles per hour, mills are suited to very light pumping only. 
Windmills require self-priming pumps—that is, pumps that are 
always ready to pump water without adding priming or working 
rapidly to get water to the cylinder. They are also provided with 
governors to avoid pumping after the tank is full, and with means 
which high winds will automatically operate, for folding the mill out 
of the wind. Light winds and severe duty are counterbalanced to 
some extent by gearing the wheel for higher speed than is communi¬ 
cated to the actuating rod. 

Hot-air engines can be used indoors if the supply is within the 
vertical distance limit and not too far from the house. If the well or 
source is far away, it is best to build a frost-proof house for the engine, 
close to the source or over the well, so that direct connection to pump- 
rod can be made. Hot-air engines, like gasoline engines, depend on 
the momentum of the speed wheel doing part of the work. In the 
double-cylinder type, illustrated in Fig. 67, heat from wood, coal, gas, 
or oil expands the air under the piston of the power side, and drives 




PLUMBING 


77 


it up. At the same time, the other piston draws the air over through 
a heat accumulator of iron plates, where it comes in contact with a 
water-jacket that is filled by passing the pump discharge through it, 
the air thus losing some of its heat by imparting it to the water in the 
jacket. The same air is then forced back through the accumulator, 
where it reabsorbs some of the heat previously parted with, and is 



compressed in its par¬ 
tially cooled state in 
the bottom of the cyl¬ 
inder on the combus¬ 
tion side, where, by 
again absorbing heat 
from the fuel, the proc¬ 
ess is caused to be re¬ 
peated. Thus, by al¬ 
ternate expansion and 
contraction of the air 
contained, the engine 
is operated, the water 
pumped for general 
purposes aiding by ab¬ 
sorbing heat from the 
air as it passes through 
the jacket. 

Hydraulic water- 
lifts have of late years 
been used to elevate 
water by water-pres¬ 
sure. With them va¬ 
rious arrangements of 
piping to suit a wide scope of conditions are possible. If city water 
pressure does not reach the upper floors, the pressure on the lower floor 
may be employed to lift the supply for the upper floors, either for direct 
use from the pipe as usual, by aid of a closed accumulator, or by first 
delivering the water elevated into an open tank and then piping as in 
the ordinary tank installation. The power-water of a lift (that used 
to elevate with) is not wasted as in the case of a ram. The service 
for the low-level fixtures is simply carried through the power cylinder 


SUCTION PIPE 


Fig. 67. 


Double-Cylinder Hot-Air Engine for Pumping 
House Water Supply. 








78 


PLUMBING 


of the lift, and elevation takes place only during the use of faucets 
connected to the street pressure. The amount of water elevated is 
therefore governed by consumption on the lower floors; and the ratio 
of amount elevated to that used directly from the initial pressure, is 



Fig. 68. Method of Using City Pressure to Pump Soft Water for House Supply. 


as the capacity of the power cylinder to that of the one operated by it. 
An approximate estimation of the relative amounts of elevated and 
initial supply needed, must, on this account, be made before a lift 
of proper construction can be selected. 

Cistern water can also be lifted by this method to either an open 
or closed tank, using or wasting the power water according to circum- 















































































































































































PLUMBING 


79 


stances. In Fig. 68 is shown a plan by which the use of hard city 
water, useful for some purposes, is made to pump rain water for baths, 
trays, etc., by means of a water lift. 

Domestic supply by what is termed the Pneumatic System, is a 
feature of modern plumbing in many isolated buildings. The manner 
of pumping, though it may be accomplished by any of the means 
mentioned, is usually by hand pump. Instead of the open elevated 
tank supplying the fixtures by gravity, a closed tank capable of with¬ 
standing the required pressure is placed either in the cellar or in the 



ground. The pump is connected with the tank at the bottom, with a 
check-valve between the pump and tank. The house service is also 
taken from the bottom of the tank. Pumping the water in, crowds the 
air in the tank into the upper portion, so that, by the time the tank 
is three-quarters filled with water, there is in the neighborhood of four 
atmospheres’ (or 45 pounds’) pressure on the gauge. Part of the 
storage tank being occupied by air, and much of the water in it not 
available under the pressure thus established, higher pressures are 
often employed, either by pumping air in with a separate pump, or by 

















































80 


PLUMBING 


use of a pump delivering both water and air. The former is the 
more satisfactory. 

A type of pneumatic service apparatus is shown in Fig. 69. The 
good features of these systems are that cheap and permanent support 
for the tank is secured; the water is kept cool in summer and free of 
frost in winter; and, if sufficient capacity is provided, fire-pressure for 
a time can be obtained. The disadvantages are that plain iron 
cylinders injure the water; galvanized cylinders are costly; large 
cylinders are hard to make and keep air-tight through the strain of 
transportation and installation; calking seams is expensive; a battery 
of small cylinders offer numerous seams and connective joints as 
chances for leakage, and only a fraction of the water is available under 
ordinary pressure; high pressure is severe on the pump and parts; 
and hand pumping is very laborious. Pressure higher than necessary 
for the purpose, is useless expense in any system. 


WASHER AND HYDRANT 

Assuming that a house is to be piped from city pressure, the 
fixtures of the yard are nearly always a street washer and yard hydrant. 
The principle of these is the same; but the washer is primarily intended 
for the attachment of hose for sprinkling purposes, while the 
hydrant body extends above ground so that vessels may be placed 
under the nozzle to have water drawn into them. The hydrant may 
be used to draw either with or without a hose thread on the nozzle, 
while no use of the street washer is possible without the thread; hence 
there may be a material difference in the water rates, according to 
the possible uses the water can be put to. 

The valve of these fixtures is placed at the bottom, 2 to 5 feet 
below the surface, according to climate. The working parts can be 
withdrawn for repairs without disturbing the body. Waste-holes are 
open when the pressure valve is closed, so that the stem and body will 
empty to below the freezing point. The pressure waste-hole is not 
entirely closed until the hydrant or washer is approximately wide open. 
For this reason, turning the water only partly on when drawing or 
sprinkling, while it does no apparent harm, is likely to lead to trouble. 
If the ground is clay, it does not soak up the waste. If there is a 
cellar near, it will sooner or later find its wav into it. 




PLUMBING 


81 


Even if care is taken in this regard and the hydrant valve fully 
opened when in use, there is a liability to serious dampness from the 
wastage into the ground of the water stored in the standpipe above 
the valve, which is always after a short period discharged below the 
ground-level through the waste-hole. 

The least trouble one may expect from careless use is that the 
ground around the fixture will be saturated, and the body stand full 
of water instead of draining away; and when cold weather sets in, 
damage by freezing will result. The action of frozen ground in pulling 
up on the body of these fixtures is severe. To avoid trouble from 
waste water and frost, certain precautions are taken in good work. 
The end of an iron pipe is too rigid for direct connection. To 
overcome this, fittings and nipples are added so as to make the 
connection indirect and secure the required spring in the joints and 
pipe, as well as freedom from torsion. A short piece of lead pipe 
answers the same purpose. A cavity formed about the base of the 
fixture and connections, permits freedom of action and greater im¬ 
munity from frost breakage. 

Usually, the only positive way to insure the waste water draining 
away harmlessly, is to bore a dry-well under the fixture and fill it 
with broken rock or fragments of hard brick. This filling should 
extend a little above the bottom of the fixture, and should have a stout 
cloth folded about the body and tucked down around the brick at the 
edges so that the earth cannot wash in and choke the crevices of the 

filling. 

SERVICE PIPES 

The supply to the house should have a stop and waste immediately 
outside the wall—or, preferably, just within the wall if the cellar is 
frost-proof. Eor outside use, the iron case box is best. Combination 
stop and waste cocks or valves of similar principle are generally used 
for this and all other shut-off purposes in plumbing work, where the 
waste feature is permissible at all. Two separate valves or cocks 
serve the purpose perfectly, of course; but the waste is likely to be 
forgotten, thus leaving the pipe filled and subject to frost. Merely 
closing the stop and opening the waste will not, however, drain the 
pipe. It is necessary, also, to open the faucets in the house, in older 
that air may enter at the upper end of each line and counteibalance 



82 


PLUMBING 


the atmospheric pressure at the waste so that the water will run out 
by gravity. If the pipe is sagged at any point, the water retained 
will have to be blown out with the lungs. If the pipe is trapped by 
reason of its course, the trap is, or should be, provided with a drain 
cock, and this must also be opened to insure thorough draining. Air- 
chambers usually drain without attention as they are only partially 
filled by compression of the air trapped in them, and when the pressure 
is off, the air expands again and drives the water out. 

While speaking of draining pipes, it may be well to mention the 
draining and protection of waste traps from frost as well. Closet 

tanks can be drained by simply 
pulling the chain when the water is 
off. The bowl may be emptied 
with a sponge or rag; but, as com¬ 
munication would thus be opened 
between the house and soil pipe, 
this plan is not advised for any 
kind of trap. Common salt added to 
the water in the trap will prevent 
freezing until the contents chill 
below zero, Fahrenheit. Caustic 
soda lowers the freezing point, and 
may be used in earthenware with 
impunity; but while it has shown 
no noticeable effect on metals, it 
should be used with caution, if at all, 
in both metal and porcelain-enameled iron fixtures. Glycerine and 
wood alcohol added in equal parts to make a 30 per cent solution in 
the trap or fixture, will prevent freezing above zero. If the house 
is being drained for a considerable period of disuse, the best anti¬ 
freezing and seal-protecting filling for ordinary traps is, perhaps, 
glycerine alone. It has the advantage of doing no injury whatever 
to any material used in such goods, and it will not evaporate. 

While it is sometimes necessary to place pipe in exposed positions, 
plumbing is not satisfactory if so exposed as to freeze during regular 
occupancy of the house; and every precaution should be taken to locate 
the fixtures and design the pipe system so that freezing will be unlikely. 
When exposure cannot be avoided, placing the hot service below the 



Fig. 70. One Method of Protecting Ser¬ 
vice Pipes from Frost. Pipe Carried 
through Wide Channel in Wall 
and Packed in Mineral Wool. 






























PLUMBING 


S3 


cold on horizontal runs; providing circulation in the hot service so 
placed; provision for circulation in, or otherwise warming, the cold 
service; and employment of liberal air-chambers, may singly or 
otherwise reduce the trouble from freezing to a minimum. Fig. 70 



Fig. 71. Iron Service Pipe Connected to Street Main by Lead 
Pipe to Secure Flexibility and Avoid Effects of Settling. 


illustrates the precaution taken in one instance to protect the service 
in a cold-climate job. Water for the whole job always depends upon 
the service being in working order, and in this case the character of the 
ground prohibited drilling down to carry it under the area wall. The 

wall is shown. liberally channeled, 
thus making three walls and the ends 
of the box of stone. The pipe is 
packed in mineral w T ool. The main 
stop and waste cock is shown at A. 
Fig. 71 shows a method of se- 
'/%/'/ curing flexibility necessary to com¬ 
pensate for settling when connect- 
, in£ an iron service pipe with the 

SERVICE PIPE & < r 1 

street main, a section of lead sup¬ 
ply being wiped in next the main. 
The service box and stop-cock at 

Fig. 72. Service Pipe Carried beneath . 

Foundation wail. the curb are not shown in the en¬ 

graving. The earth under the pipe should be rammed down solid 
after the connections are made, so that pressure from above will not 



break the connection or strain the cock. The connections between 
the lead and iron pipes should be made by means of brass ferrules 












































84 


PLUMBING 


and wiped joints. A stop and waste cock should be placed in the 
service pipe just inside the cellar wall, and in a position where it will 
be accessible in case of accident. A drip pipe should be connected 
with the cock tube, for draining away the waste water, which would 
otherwise saturate the frost-proofing and chill the pipe by con¬ 
duction. 

Simple boxes with multiple walls with air-space between, may be 
employed in protecting pipes against frost; or a single box with mineral 
wool, hair, felt, shavings, or granulated cork may suffice. When the 
service is brought under the foundation before entering the cellar, 
as shown in Fig. 72, frost-proofing is seldom necessary. 


DIRECT SUPPLY 


The salient features of the supply system for city pressure, not 
already mentioned, are; separate shut-off cocks for the supplies of 

each fixture; separate lines to each 
isolated fixture or to each group 
of fixtures; f-inch supply to all 
sinks, trays, and baths; J-mch 
supply to water-closet tanks; and 
i or f-inch branches for lavatories; 
no traps in supply lines; return cir¬ 
culation from lavatory hot supply 
so that hot water can be drawn 
instantly at the lavatory faucet; 
storage cylinder for hot water amply large to furnish a hot bath with¬ 



out robbing the hot service for other purposes; faucet on sediment 
pipe, so that water can be drawn at that point when desired; and 
proper stove connection. All shut-offs in direct-pressure work, ex¬ 
cept where located immediately at the fixture, should be stop and 
waste, with the waste on the house or fixture side. 

On single runs of lead pipe, make all bends on the same size of 
pipe, of the same radius. Make no bend on any size pipe, except 
tubing, of less than 3-inch radius to the center of the pipe. Give f 
and f-inch pipe bends 3-inch radius; and J and 1-inch pipe bends, 
4-inch radius. Where two pipes of different size run together and 
bend in opposite directions, give the bend of the smallest pipe the 
radius prescribed for the bend in the larger one, if practicable. 














PLUMBING 


85 


• 

TABLE II* 

Data Relating to Offsets 


Bend 

Equal to 

Multiply by 

jl 

. 60 ° . 

1 15 

JL 

. 45 ° . 

1 414 

1 

. 30 ° . 

2 00 

i 2 

1 

. 22*° . 

2 61 

i G 
_1 

. 1U° .. . . 

5 12 

3 £ .... 

_1 

. 5|° . 

10 22 

G T 






S 




s . 

\ 

\ 

\ 

1 

\ 






Where more than one pipe bend in the same direction, make the 
bends of the pipes form arcs of concentric circles as shown in Figs. 73 
and 74. To set off the offsets in Fig. 

74, draw line A, at the end of the 
first bends; and with the proper 
radii, describe the arcs that outline 
them. Set off one-eighth of the 
circumference of the circle corre¬ 
sponding to the larger arc, and draw 
line C, cutting the center of the 
circle. Then produce dotted line 
D, and set off a square the diagonal 
of which will give the straight 
pieces of the offset desired; and 
produce E parallel to C. Next de¬ 
scribe the arcs outlining the second 
bends, finding the center on E from 
radius equal to the corresponding 
radius at A, which will be at the 
intersection of E and B. This 
brings the offset parts the same 
distance apart as the runs are. To 
accomplish this result with iron 
pipe, the centers of 45-degree fittings 


a— 



Fig 


4. Method of Laying Out Offset 
in Parallel Pipes to Preserve Equal 
Distance between Them. 


would have to be placed at the intersections of tangents of the arcs, 
thus throwing the fittings in a line deviating 22 \ degrees from one 
perpendicular to the run. This plan is the strictly correct way; but 
on account of the difficulty of laying out the work, it is more usual 




































86 


PLUMBING 


to line up offset fittings perpendicular to the runs, and let the offset 
pieces fall, as they will, nearer to each other, center to center, than are 
the lines of the runs. 

Offset pieces from center to center of fittings exceed in length 
the distance offset in the ratio indicated by the constants given in the 
accompanying table. To find the length of an offset piece, center to 
center of fittings, simply multiply the distance the line is to be offset, 
by the constant given for the particular fittings to be used. 

Water Supply to Fixtures. In a small installation, the running 
of a separate supply to each fixture is desirable. There is, however, 
a limit to the number of fixtures and isolated location of them, beyond 
which the furnishing of separate supplies to each faucet is folly, as, in 
addition to the confusion of pipes, and the expense, it leaves more ma¬ 
terial open to possible failure, and does not reduce the chances of 
lack of service in proportion, the sole object of separate supplies 
(and of cocks, too) being to avoid losing the service of other fixtures 
during times when one of them, or its supply or waste, must be 
repaired. 

In a residence job, two main supplies to each bathroom, with 
separate stops for each fixture, are sufficient; and a return circulating 
pipe from the lavatory will serve every purpose, as the water is kept 
hot in the main line to the bath branches. 

The pump and kitchen-sink work of a country job of this type is 
shown in Fig. 75. The pump air-chamber discharge leads up to 
and over tank. An opening near the pump provides for elevating 
water by other means if desired. The pump faucet is piped up and 
over so as to discharge into sink. The tell-tale pipe from tank leads 
down behind sink-back and out through a nozzle, as shown. The 
sink supplies are fitted with stop-cocks. The pressure being light, 
there are no air-chambers to the sink faucets. The supply to pump 
is from a large cistern. 

Fig. 76 shows the supplies of the same job, on the kitchen ceiling. 
The system provides positive circulation to keep hot water near the 
bathroom fixtures. The hot supply is on the left side for each fixture. 
There is only one pipe crossed, and it does not interfere with draining 
the job. There are no traps in the supplies, nor drain cocks, to be 
forgotten. There is a relief line from the reservoir to the tank, so 
that it is not possible to close every means of escape for vapor or steam 



PLUMBING 


87 


fl> £ 

. s li ^ 

I 0^(2 



Fig. 75. Pump and Kitchen-Sink of a Country Installation. 























































































































































































































88 


PLUMBING 


from the reservoir. The hot supply and cold service are both open to 
the air at the tank. 

The disadvantage of this job is that the cocks which stop the hot 
water to the bathroom are over the reservoir. While each fixture is 
controlled separately, by cocks in addition to its regular faucets, all 
the lines are, not under control individually. This arrangement 
embraces every feature essential to good service and with the least 
possible material. The nickeled supply in bathroom is thus reduced 
to a minimum, and the chances for leakage to do damage are greatly 
lessened. For comparison, the kitchen work of an actual installation 
with separate supplies, having one bathroom and three odd fixtures, 
is showm in Fig. 77. This number of fixtures is considered about 
the limit in strictly separate supply work for residences, when all the 
lines radiate from one point, as they do in this case. In order that 
their purpose may be understood, the pipes shown in Fig. 77 are 
numbered. Pipe 1 carries the water from the house force-pump to 
the tank, and is arranged to discharge over the top of the tank. The 
tell-tale pipe, 2, is from the tank, and discharges in the sink, so that 
the person using the pump will know, when water flows from it, that 
the tank is full to overflowing. The cold-water supply to the butler’s 
sink is No. 3. No. 4 is the hot-water supply to the same fixture. 
Pipe 5 is the return circulation from the bathroom hot supply. To 
make proper circulation certain at all times, regardless of the trap in 
the hot-service pipe made by dropping from the boiler and running 
across under the sink before rising to the second floor, the hot-service 
pipe is continued to the attic and a return made from there, an air- 
pipe being taken from the highest point over the tank, to prevent its 
becoming air-bound. The position of the stop-cocks is such that they 
will drain without giving special attention to the waste water, which 
discharges into the sink; and the cocks are within easy reach from 
the floor. Pipe 6 is the cold-water supply to the bathroom fixtures. 
The supply to the water-closet tank is taken from pipe 9, which 
passes under the closet room, a cock being placed just above the floor. 
Pipe 7 is the hot-water supply to the bathroom fixtures. The main 
cold' supply from the tank is pipe 8, which has a cock over the sink, 
and is also provided with a valve at the tank. Pipe 9 supplies cold 
water to the laundry, the hall lavatory, and the water-closet already 



PLUMBING 


89 


mentioned. Pipe 10 supplies hot water to the laundry and the hall 
lavatory. 

All of the service pipes, both hot and cold, above the first floor, 
are continued upward from the kitchen ceiling through a partition 
to and o\ er the tank. TLhis allows air to enter the pipes and drain the 
lines when the stop-cocks on them are turned off. 

Baths do not need circulation for the same reason that lavatories 
do. La\ atory faucets are small in nozzle, as a rule ; only small 
quantities of water are needed at a time; and it is annoying to have 
to waste time in drawing out cold, “dead” water and enough more 



Fig. 77 , Kitchen Arrangement of a Separate Supply Tank In¬ 
stallation. 


to warm the pipe line, before warm water can be had at the faucet. 
Where the water must be pumped by hand this is still more aggra¬ 
vating. Kitchen sinks are close to the hot supply source, and do 
not need circulation. Lavatories and other fixtures remote from 
the bath or main toilet room, are sometimes served from the circu¬ 
lating loop instead of separately. 

HoLWater Storage. The storage cylindei for hot water is 
made in both horizontal and vertical types. When heated by stove 
connections, the vertical type, shown in Fig. 78, is best; and this 
type is usually employed. The only difference in the standard makes 
is the position of the connections. Both vertical and horizontal 
types are connected and operate on the same principles, and the 


































































































































































90 


PLUMBING 


arrangement of one may be deduced from the modus opcvandi of 
the other. The vertical type, for example, of iron or mild steel, gal¬ 
vanized inside and out, single- or double-riveted, heavy, and calked 
according to pressure designed for, is generally divided into two 
classes —Standard and Extra Heavy. Seamless copper cylinders, 

reinforced inside 
for heavy work, 
are made. 

The light 
copper shells for 
light pressure, 
not reinforced, 
are collapsible 
under partial 
vacuum, and 
frequently do 
collapse when 
the supply is be¬ 
ing drained, on 
account of the 
delivery failing 
to admit air to 
take the place of 
the water. Cop¬ 
per shells are 
also much more 
likely to rupture 
under strain than 
iron or steel 
shells. Take, 

for instance, a house with copper storage cylinder, with hot fire and in 
extremely hot water, as on wash-day; then, if the pressure is suddenly 
reduced by opening a faucet or otherwise, and the temperature is 
far above the boiling point of the water under the remaining pressure, 
the tendency is for the whole volume of water to turn instantly to 
steam. This has happened with disastrous effect in more than one 
instance, the copper shell being ripped and spread out almost in 
a plane. 


Hot Water to Building 



Fig. 78. Vertical Type of Hot-Water Storage Cylinder Adapted 

for Range Heating. 






































PLUMBING 


91 


Rumbling noise is frequently heard in any type of reservoir. 
Water being heated throughout, or perhaps only at some points in 
the stove, to above the boiling point corresponding to the pressure, 
steam bubbles form in the hottest places and crowd the water-back 
into the main or into the air-chambers to make room for themselves. 
It is the concussion caused by the collapse of these bubbles forming 


1 1 



Fig. 79. Method of Connecting Reservoir to Two Water-Backs on Different Floors. 


and condensing in rapid succession, that creates the rumbling noise. 
This condition sometimes results from a brisk fire when the reservoir 
water is not overheated, and is due to air-traps in the connection, or 
constriction by incrustation or otherwise. Rumbling under this 
condition is a cause for prompt investigation. 

The means of heating may be a cast back or front, or a hand¬ 
made pipe coil in the firebox. Air-traps favoring the formation 
















































92 


PLUMBING 


of steam are occasioned by wrong inclination of the connection, by 
reduction of its diameter in the horizontal part, or by the upper hole 
of a cast back being tapped below the top of the water cavity. The 
bottom of a reservoir is below the firebox level when placed on the 
regular stand. When it is desirable to connect a reservoir with two 
water-backs, one in the kitchen range for regular service and another 
in a laundry stove in the cellar, the plan of connecting them seen in 
Fig. 79 is proper. In this case, either stove may be used sepa¬ 
rately, or both together, as occasion demands. The sediment 
cock of the upper reservoir may be handy to draw from at times; 
but the lower one will be found to collect most of the sediment, and 
should be opened quite frequently to cleanse the water-back and con¬ 
nections. 

In laundries, public bathrooms, etc., where a large amount of hot 
water is used, it is necessary to have a larger storage tank and a 
heater with more heating surface than can be obtained in the ordinary 
range water-back. Fig. 80 shows an arrangement for this purpose, 
using the horizontal type of storage tank. The tank may be of gal¬ 
vanized wrought iron or steel, any size desired, and is usually sus¬ 
pended from the ceiling by means of heavy iron stirrups. The heaters 
used are similar to those employed for hot-water house warming. 
The simplest method of making the connections is indicated in the 
illustration. If the supply is from a street service, or there are faucets 
on the storage tank supply below the hot storage reservoir level, 
making it possible for the tank to become empty through those faucets 
or failure of the street supply, there should be a check-valve in the 
cold-water connection. 

The capacity of the heater and tank employed will depend upon 
the amount of water used. In some cases a large storage reser¬ 
voir and a comparatively small heater are preferable, and in others 
the reverse is more desirable. 

The required grate surface of the heater may be computed as 
follows:—First determine or assume the number of gallons to be 
heated per hour, and the required rise in temperature. Reduce gallons 
to pounds by multiplying by 8.3, and multiply the result by the rise 
in temperature to obtain the number of thermal units. Assuming a 
combustion of five pounds of coal per square foot of grate, and an 





PLUMBING 


93 


efficiency of 8,000 thermal units per pound of coal, we have the 
formula: 

Grate surface in sq. ft. = 9 - a -‘:. P er h °“ r X 8. 3 X Rise in temp. 

M 5 X 8,000 

Example. How many square feet of grate surface will be 
required to raise the temperature of 200 gallons of water per hour 



Fig. 80. Horizontal Type of Hot-Water Storage Cylinder Con¬ 
nected to Heater. 


from 40 degrees to 180 degrees? Substituting values in the above 
formula, we have: 


200 X 8.3 X (180-40) 
5 X 8,000 


= 5.8 square feet. 


In computing the amount of water required for bathtubs, it is 
customary to allow from 20 to 30 gallons per tub, and to consider 

































































































94 


PLUMBING 


that the tub may be used three or four times per hour as a maximum 
during the morning. This will vary a good deal, depending upon the 
character of the building. The above figures are based on apartment 
hotel practice. 

Storage cylinders or reservoirs for hot water are often called 
boilers, but will henceforth be referred to as reservoirs. A stove or 
range connection is essentially described as follows: The sediment 
pipe should terminate in a faucet at the lowest point in the bottom 
connection, which connection should rise continuously from the 
lownst point to the bottom hole in the heater. No direct connection 
should ever be made between the water supply pipes and the drain. 
Even if such a connection is above the trap of a fixture, there is some 
danger that foul liquids or gases may penetrate for some distance into 
the supply pipes and thus afford a possibility of contamination of the 
water supply. The upper connection should rise continuously from 
the upper hole of the heater to the hole in the side of the reservoir; 
or, if preferred, in order to get hot water instantly after the fire begins, 
the upper connection may rise and connect into the main hot service 
over the reservoir. The circulation will be the same; but in general, 
connecting at the hole in the side gives best results, though in this 
case the first portion of water heated mingles with the balance in the 
upper end of the reservoir, and the following portions in succession,, 
so that no hot water can be obtained until all the water above the 
side hole is warmed. The bottom hole serves for emptying, cleansing, 
and circulation to the stove. 

The return circulation is always connected to the bottom pipe 
of the stove connection, as shown in Fig. 81, in which the hot service 
and circulating pipe are represented by dotted lines. The side hole 
is simply to receive the water from the stove. There are, or should be, 
two holes in the top, one in the center of the head, and the other about 
half the radius in the direction of the side hole. The eccentric hole 
is for cold-water entry. The cold supply might be admitted at the 
bottom, but the result would be to empty the reservoir when the house 
supply is turned off. The cold supply is not emptied abruptly into 
the top of the reservoir. A delivery pipe is extended to very near the 
bottom, say within two or three inches, so that the water will mingle 
directly with the coldest portion near the bottom, where it begins its 




PLUMBING 


95 


_Co1d Water Supply 
"'From House TanK 


journey to the stove to be heated. The usual way is by simple open- 
end pipe, but the end of the pipe should be plugged and holes drilled 
in the pipe and plug so as to form a spray delivery. This does not aid 
the delivery or heating at all, but the spray will scour the bottom and 
sides adjacent when the reservoir is emptied and flushed to rinse out 
scale and sediment. Immediately under the upper head, the delivery 
pipe must have a J-inch hole drilled in, so that air will enter and 
break the siphon, and thus avoid inadvertently emptying the reser¬ 
voir when intending only to cut off the supply and drain the pipe. 
See Fig. 78. 

The siphon hole, as it is termed, 
should be turned in the direction 
opposite the eccentric hole, which 
is for the hot-water exit, so that the 
stream of cold water which issues 
there when water is coming into the 
reservoir will not cut across and in¬ 
terfere with the hot service which 
is always leaving the reservoir at the ^ 
same time. If the delivery were 
placed nearest the side hole, hot 
water from the stove would have to 
pass around it in order to reach the 
exit. Delivering the cold through 
a pipe passing down through the 
volume of hot water is no material 
retardation of the heating process. 

The heat thus absorbed by the cold 
delivery is simply that much aid to 
the ultimate purpose. This cannot 
be said of the siphon-hole jet when directed across the hot exit or 
in its direction. 

The object in putting the siphon-hole near the upper head is to 
avoid siphoning more water than necessary, as the waste tubes of 
stop and waste cocks are generally left open—not connected to drains, 
and often not even discharging where the waste can be left to take 
care of itself. Moreover, it is a waste of the stored hot water to 
siphon out several inches from the hottest point. 



Fig. 81. Pipe Connections to Heater and 
Fixtures. Hot Service and Circula¬ 
ting Pipe Shown by Dotted Hines. 
Return Circulation Connected 
to Bottom Pipe in Water- 
Back. 







































90 


PLUMBING 


Care should be taken not to have the hot connection extend into 
the upper head below the inner surface, as this would form an air¬ 
space which could not be filled with water, and thus annoying noise 
and the formation of steam would be favored, if no other consequence 
presented itself. 

It is essential to keep the water-back or coil filled. Sometimes 
the supply may be off for a day or so. No water can then be drawn 
at the regular faucets; and extreme care should be taken not to draw 
too much from the sediment faucet, as this is the time when temptation 
to use it is hard to overcome. The reservoir full will keep the level 
above the side hole for weeks, if none is deliberately drawn out. The 



Pig. 82. Horizontal Hot-Water Storage Reservoir with Steam Coil of Brass Pipe for 
Heating. Used Where Steam Pressure is Constantly Maintained. 


height of the water can be told by tapping on the shell, and in no case 
should it be allowed to fall below the side opening; neither will it do 
to empty the reservoir and use the fire with the back empty. Either 
keep water in the reservoir in cases of emergency, or remove the water 
heater altogether and substitute a tile back until regular water supply 
can be had. A reservoir can be replenished with a pail and funnel, 
by hand, by loosening one of the top connections. 

In apartment or other houses where steam pressure is constantly 
maintained, the whole plumbing system is usually supplied with hot 
water through the medium of a reservoir provided with steam coil of 
brass pipe, as shown in Figs. 82 and 83. The trombone coil, illus- 





































PLUMBING 


97 


HOT WATER 
SERVICE 



.J 

_ - *■ v 




l '<r 






trated in Fig. 82, can be used only on horizontal tanks; it would not 
drain in any other position. Ihe water of condensation is generally 
wasted into the sewer, delivered to a hot well, or returned by steam 
trap. Steam heat in such instances takes the place of the water 
heater used in stoves and ranges in general domestic work. 

The efficiency of a steam coil when surrounded by water is much 
greater than when placed in the air. A brass or copper pipe will give 
off about 200 thermal units per 
square foot of surface per hour for 
each degree difference in temper¬ 
ature between the steam and the 
surrounding water. This is assum¬ 
ing that the water is circulating 
through the heater so that it moves 
over the coil at a moderate velocity. 

The ratio of absorption decreases 
as the temperature of the water ap¬ 
proaches that of the steam surface. 

In assuming the temperature of the 
water, take the average between that 
at the inlet and that at the outlet. 

Example. How many square 
feet of heating surface will be re¬ 
quired in a brass coil to heat 100 

gallons of water per hour from 38 ~ 00 TT „ 

° 1 Fig. 83. Vertical Storage Reservoir with 

degrees to 190 degrees, with steam Steam Coil Of Brass Pipe for Heating, 
o & ’ Used Where Steam Pressure is 

at 5 pounds’ pressure? Constantly Maintained. 

Water to be heated = 100 X 8.3 = 830 pounds. 

Rise in temperature = 190 — 38 = 152 degrees. 

Average temperature of water in contact with the coils 

=— 2 + 38 = 114 degrees. 

Temperature of steam at 5 pounds’ pressure = 228° approximately 
(actually 227.964°). 

The required B. T. U. per hour = 830 X 152 = 126,160. 

Difference between the average temperature of the water and the tem¬ 
perature of the .steam = 228 — 114 = 114 degrees. 

B. T. U. given up to the water per square foot of surface per hour = 
114 X 200 = 22,800. therefore, No. of feet of heating surface required 

126,160 

= 22 800 ~~ 5 5 s 9 uare feet * 


*■- - v' 


-y 





I. —f 



_ 



COLD WATER 
SUPPLV 










































98 


PLUMBING 


EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 

1. How many linear feet of 1-inch brass pipe will be required 

to heat 150 gallons of water per hour from 40 to 200 degrees, with 
steam at 20 pounds’ pressure? Ans. 21.3 feet. 

2. How many square feet of grate surface will be required in 



a heater to heat 300 gallons of water per hour from 50 to 170 degrees? 

Ans. 7.4 sq. ft. 

3. A hot-water storage tank has a steam coil consisting of 30 
linear feet of 1-inch brass pipe. It is desired to connect a coal-burning 
heater for summer use, which shall have the same capacity. Steam 
at 5 pounds’ pressure is used, and the water is raised from 40 to 180 
degrees. How many square feet of grate surface are required? 

Ans. 5.9 sq. ft. 



































PLUMBING 


99 


4. A hotel has 30 bathtubs, which are used three times apiece 


between the hours of seven and nine 
in the morning. The hot-water sys¬ 
tem has a storage tank of 400 gal¬ 
lons. Allowing 20 gallons per bath, 
and starting with the tank full of 
hot water, liow many square feet of 
grate surface will be required to heat 
the additional quantity of water 
within the stated time, if the tem¬ 
perature is raised from 50 to 130 
degrees? 




Fig. 85. Cross-Connection of Storage Tank 
to Firepot of Furnace. 


Ans. 11 .6 sq. ft. 
If steam at 10 pounds’ pres¬ 
sure is used instead of the 
heater, how many square feet 
of heating coil will be re¬ 
quired? Ans. 15.3 sq. ft. 

Sometimes a storage tank 
is connected with a steam¬ 
heating system for winter use, 
and cross-connected with a 
coal-burning heater for sum¬ 
mer use when steam is not 
available. Such an arrange¬ 
ment is shown in Fig. 84. A 
cross-connection for the same 
purpose is often made to the 
fire-pot of the house-warming 
heater, as indicated in Fig. 85. 
A drain at the lowest point is 
essential, but so deep a dip as 
shown is not necessary. 

Temperature Regulation. 
Hot-water storage tanks hav¬ 
ing special heaters or steam 
coils, should be provided with 
some means for regulating the 
shows a simple form attached to a 

























































































100 


PLUMBING 


coal-burning heater. It consists of a hollow casting about nine inches 

long, tapped at the ends to receive 
2-inch pipe, and containing a second 
shell called the steam generator, 
shown in detail in Fig. 87. The outer 
shell is connected with the circula¬ 
tion pipe as shown in Fig. 86. The 



_n ii i l 

generator is filled with kerosene, or 
a mixture of kerosene and water, 
depending upon the temperature at 
which it is wished to have the regulator operate. The inner chamber 



connects with a space below a flexible rubber diaphragm in a sepa- 




































































































PLUMBING 


101 


rate case adapted to operate the draft lever. The boiling point of 
the mixture in the generator is lower than that of water alone, and 
depends upon the proportion of kerosene used, so that when the tem¬ 
perature of the water in the outer chamber reaches this point, the 
mixture boils, and its vapor creates a pressure which moves the dia¬ 
phragm and closes the draft door of the heater, with which it is con¬ 
nected. 

A form of regulator for use with a steam coil is shown in Fig. 88. 
This consists of a rod made up of two metals having different coeffi- 




■pio- 89 Gas Heater with Automatic Mechanism for Controlling Hot Service. Mew at 
’ Right Shows Interior Coils. 


cients of expansion, and so arranged that the difference in expansion 
will produce sufficient movement to open a small valve when the 
water reaches a given temperature. This allows water pressure 
from the street main with which it is connected, to flow into a chamber 
above a rubber diaphragm, thus closing the steam supply to the coil. 
When the water cools, the rod contracts, and the pressure is released 
above the diaphragm, allowing the valve to open and thus again admit 

steam to the coil. ^ 





















































































































































102 


PLUMBING 


Return circulation is provided in these installations in the way 
already described, being even more essential than in small jobs with 
shorter runs and fewer fixtures; yet one would think that the great 
number of fixtures served would insure at least one or another being 
in constant use, and thus keep warm water in the main lines without 
* special provision for the purpose. 

In cottages with no bath and with small culinary requirements, 



Fig. 90. Gas Heater Con¬ 
nected to Reservoir and 
Controlled by Ther¬ 
mostatic Valve Pro¬ 
jecting into Latter. 


TO FLUE 


HO T WA TER- 
OUTLET 


/RONSACKET 
W/TH -h 



ASBESTOS 
L /N/NG 

SHEET /RON 
SACHE T W/TH 


ASBESTOS 
L/N/NG 

DEAD A/R 


SPACE 


TOP OF 
BURNER CAP 



% 


^2 


COLD WATER 
CHAMBER 

-HO T WA TER 
CHAMBER 

COLD WATER 

-HOT WATER 

COLO WATER 
/NLET 



Fig. 91. Enlarged Section of Gas Heater Shown in Fig. 90. 


a 30-gallon reservoir is sufficient. Not less than 40 gallons should be 
employed for a bathroom job. The capacity of the average stove 
heater is even too great for 40 gallons’ storage unless there is liberal 
use of hot water; but where gas is used and the water heating inde¬ 
pendent of the cooking heat, as it generally is, the temperature can 
be regulated to suit. A storage capacity of 52 gallons or more is 
usual for large residences. 















































































PLUMBING 


103 


. Gas He aie™. There are gas heaters provided with thermo¬ 
static or pressure mechanism by which the hot service is taken care 
of automatically. I he latter of these are simply connected in the 
line in a convenient place. In one type, the appearance and con¬ 
struction of which is shown in Fig. 89, simply opening any hot-water 
faucet reduces the pressure, and the gas is thereby turned on. A pilot 



light ignites it, and the supply is heated as fast as it passes through the 
copper coils of the heater. No storage capacity is required by this form. 
In another form, shown in Fig.-90, the heater is controlled by a thermo¬ 
static valve projecting into the regular reservoir used with it. When 
the water in the reservoir is heated to the desired temperature, the 
gas supply is reduced or cut off. A section of this heater is shown 































































































104 


PLUMBING 


in Fig. 91. It consists of a chamber surrounded by an outer jacket 
with an air-space between. Circulation pipes, through which the 
water passes, are hung in the inner chamber, just above a powerful 
gas-burner placed at the bottom of the heater. Drawing water from 
the hot faucets lowers the temperature in the reservoir through the 
cooling influence of the incoming water, and the thermostatic prin¬ 
ciple is again made to serve in opening the gas-valve until the water is 
heated to the desired temperature. 

There are other arrangements consisting essentially of an encased 

copper coil, above a gas-burner, connected 
to a standard reservoir at top and bottom. 
In these, the gas is turned on and regu¬ 
lated by hand as nearly as possible to suit 
the needs. 

Instantaneous water-heaters, operated 
by gas or gasoline, and placed in prox¬ 
imity to the fixtures served, as shown in 
Fig. 92, so as to deliver the heated water 
directly, are in general use where local 
conditions favor them. These have no 
storage capacity. A sectional view of Fig. 
92 is shown in Fig. 93, in which A is the 
gas-valve; B, the water-valve; D, the pilot 
light; FF, the burners; /, a conical heating 
ring; J, a disc to retard and spread the 
rising heat; K, a perforated copper screen-, 
and L, a revolving water distributer. In 
this heater, the water is exposed directly to the heated air and gases, 
in addition tc its passing over the heated surface of the ring I. 

Other heaters of this class offer admirable means for the water 
to take up the heat generated by the gas. All of these special means 
of heating water especially those not conforming to the plumber’s 
regular routine aie best understood and judged by a close study of 
the literature supplied by the makers. 

FILTERS 

Filters are of two classes. One class is designed to be attached 
to the end of the faucet or to special connection for drawing directly 



Fig. 93. Sectional View of Gas 
Heater Shown in Fig. 92. 

























PLUMBING 


105 


for use. The other is for use in the general house service, and filters 
all the water that passes through the main service for whatever pur¬ 
pose. In the former class, sand, freestone,or unglazed potter’s clay is 
used as the filtering medium. Ordinary fillings become foul through¬ 
out the mass, and require cleansing or renewing. The clay (unglazed 
porcelain) of which the Pasteur filter is an example, permits nothing 
to enter the filtering medium that the pores of this material will strip 
out. With such, therefore, it is necessary only to remove the tubes and 
cleanse the surface with which the unfiltered water comes in contact. 
Any porous filter plate depends for its efficiency upon the minuteness 
of the pores through which the water passes; and there is a real 
danger that after a prolonged period of use, these pores may become 
enlarged by wear from the flowing stream to a size sufficient to allow 
the passage of bacteria which at the first would have been retained 
upon the surface of the filter plate. Porous clay filters, however, 
are exceedingly slow in operation; and it is necessary to employ a 
multiplicity of tubes, and to collect the filtered water in a reservoir, in 
order to be able to get enough at once to serve ordinary cooking, needs. 
The filters are supplied with as many tubes as desired, together with 
the necessary reservoir, all complete excepting connections for the 
water pipe. 

Large filters for service interposition depend upon animal char¬ 
coal, beach sand, and coagulating processes—usually the last-men¬ 
tioned feature in conjunction with one of the other two. A sand 
filter, for instance, will be made to favor the subsidence of foreign 
material by the water taking an upward course through the mass of 
filling, a portion of the water being passed through an alum chamber 
so as to impregnate the supply sufficient to coagulate impurities which 
sand alone would allow to pass. When dissolved and carried away, 
the alum must be replaced. The filling is discarded and new sand 
put in its place from time to time; and periodic cleansing of the filling 
is done by reversing the flow of water and flushing out through a waste 
connection at the bottom. The means of thus keeping the filter in 
good order arc provided for in its construction,- in a way to make the 
cleansing and renewing of the material as easy and convenient as 



206 


PLUMBING 


WATER MOTORS 

Water motors for general power purposes, of light nature but 
requiring comparatively high speed, are made on the rotary plan, a 
jet impinging on the blades. Others, often used for oscillating fans, 
operating air-bellows for church organs, etc., have reciprocal motion, 
the water being handled in a cylinder much as steam is in a recipro¬ 
cating steam engine. Air-compressors for light duty, operated by 
water, are made on the reciprocal plan, and also in a way to fill and 
dump alternately a pair of pivoted buckets, the water pressure ex¬ 
pelling the air into an accumulator by filling the bucket with water 
until it becomes overbalanced, when it falls and trips a waste-valve 
in the bottom, and at the same time cuts off the supply to one bucket 
and turns it into the other. 

Knowledge of these and kindred devices for producing motion 
by water-pressure, is not considered a part of the plumber’s curric¬ 
ulum; but it is to his interest to learn about them when he can do so 
without interfering with studies that should take precedence by 
reason of more immediate importance. 

When a pressure tank—the so-called 'pneumatic plan—is used, 
the supply piping for plumbing fixtures is essentially the same as for 
street pressure; but when the supply is by gravity, from a tank, new 
problems present themselves. The type of tank used may in some 
cases be decided by reasons other than adaptability or simple prefer¬ 
ence. If of iron, the tank must have a safe-pan to intercept conden¬ 
sation, unless it is insulated from the air, which is difficult and ex¬ 
pensive except when the lightness of the metal requires casing for 
support. 

Any shape with flat bottom provides for retaining much sediment 
that would otherwise flow down with the water. Closed cylindrical 
tanks, those with merely a pipe-opening to the air, have not even this 
redeeming feature. Open, rectangular, lead-lined tanks, with loose 
cover, serve best. An overflow two sizes larger than the supply to 
tank (never less than 2 inches’ diameter) should always be put in 
near the top. Roof water is sometimes led directly into an attic tank, 
to avoid pumping. The tank is then divided so that one portion 
will act as a sort of filter, the water, after subsidence, finding its way 
into the distributing portion through a screened opening in the parti- 




PLUMBING 


107 


tion, some inches above the bottom. This plan requires a large tank, • 
with extraordinary support. 

The water is ne\er so well filtered as it may be, if the regular 
^aid cistern with intermediate filter is used; and, all things con- 
sidered, this is not a plan advisable to follow. The house supply 
should be taken from a little above the bottom, and well screened to 
prevent accidental choking. I he valve-controlling distribution may 
be an ordinary stop-cock with an air-pipe carried from immediately 
below it to above the overflow level, terminating in a position to dis¬ 
charge into the tank, so that air can enter to drain the line; or it may 
be the regular cistern valve, so arranged, or—which is far better— 
a hollow stopper valve, with pipe stem extending to above the over¬ 
flow level, having a chain attached to the stem, and terminating at a 
convenient point downstairs so that the supply can be stopped at will 
without going up to the tank. The hollow stem will admit air to the 
service when the water is off, and there will be no danger of accidental 
breakage or freezing, as is the case when the necessary relief pipe is 
carried up outside the tank wall. A standing bath waste fitting can 
be adapted to admirable service in this capacity; a strainer fitted in 
the collar of the waste inlet takes the place of the usual screen-hood, 
and the inlet is just far enough above the bottom to avoid troubleirom 
sediment. The tell-tale pipe should be taken from the bottom of the 
overflow pipe near the tank, and should discharge where it can easily be 
observed while pumping is in progress—over the kitchen sink, if the 
pump is beside the sink. If the closets are to be flushed by valves in¬ 
stead of individual tanks, a separate supply with cut-off should be 
put in for them. 

Pumping into the bottom of the tank, and taking the cold-service 
branches from the pipe thus used to fill it, should never be practiced. 
The little difference in head against which the pump must work when 
pumping over the top, is too small to be considered against the dis¬ 
advantages of the combined service and pump delivery, even though 
one line of small pipe is thereby saved. Failure of the single line pro¬ 
hibits service to the fixtures, and pumping into the tank, too; more¬ 
over, water that has been pumped is likely to find its way back to the 
cistern through leaky pump-valves, and there is more trouble in drain¬ 
ing both the house pipes and the pump. In placing stop and waste 
cocks in tank installations, care is necessary to set the right end up, 





108 


PLUMBING 


as the water is usually feeding down, instead of up as when direct 
pressure prevails. Thus, when a cock is set properly, air sometimes 
enters the waste-hole to cause the line to drain out at some other 
point—just the reverse of what happens in direct work. However, 
by bringing the main cold service to the kitchen, and feeding back with 
the various lines from a manifold, instead of branching out with the 
cold water on the downward course, the stop-cock work will be about 
the same as on direct work, after the manifold is reached. 

The supplying of hot water to the fixtures should be as direct 
as possible in all jobs where circulation is desired. Dipping the 
supply from the top of the reservoir to below the sink level, in order 
to secure a handy‘location for the stop-cocks, and ease in taking care 
of the drain-water, is most certain to interfere with circulation, and 
not infrequently makes it a matter of impossibility. 

The hot-serviee connection of a tank installation should continue 
up to and over the tank, as should the main lines of cold service, if 
convenient, when feeding upward. Also, as there is no street main 
to give relief, it is good practice to carry a line from the hot-service 
opening in top of reservoir directly to the tank, and over it, without 
stop-cocks or branches, so that there will be no ordinary means of 
closing it. This line will make it impossible to shut off all means of 
egress for steam and vapor, and may prevent serious accidents other¬ 
wise possible. 

Tank installations are so often remote from a plumber that every 
reasonable means should be provided for enabling the users to avoid 
trouble. A branch from the pump delivery, connecting with the cold 
service over the reservoir by stop-cock, is permissible, that the reservoir 
may be filled directly from the pump, by pumping slowly, when the 
tank or regular supply is out of order. A branch with permanent 
upright cock-funnel, is often placed on the cold over the reservoir for 
the same purpose. One may then open the cock, and pour in water 
with a pail. 

The hot service is sometimes brought down from the reservoir, and 
up behind the sink, for convenience in using the stop-cocks even 
though circulation is to be employed. In these cases a loop to the attic 
level is used to induce circulation. Instead of returning from the 
lavatory or end of the main line, as in other tank jobs and in pressure 
work, the relief continuation of the hot to the tank is used for the 





PLUMBING 


109 


flow of the loop, and a branch is taken from it in the attic and carried 
back to the bottom pipe of the stove connection. The return of the 
loop should be larger than the balance—that is, larger than the rising 
relief from which it is taken. Circulation is dependent upon the 
difference in temperature of the water in the two lines of the loop; 
and the large return, by radiation, creates a greater variation of 
temperature than would be possible in two lines of the same size. 
It is thus sought to secure sufficient difference in the weight of the 
tw o columns to overcome the impediment due to trapping the supply, 
as stated. 

A material auxiliary feature to which success should sometimes 
be credited in this type of installation, is the skilful arrangement of a 
tee or Y fitting at the junction with the stove connection. Water 
being heated in the stove, circulation through the heater is inevitable. 
To aid the general hot-service circulation, it is then but necessary 
to divide the work of furnishing wMer to the heater, between the 
reservoir connection and the return pipe of the loop. This is done by 
reducing, at the circulation connection, the flow from the reservoir 
to the stove, to much less than the capacity of the regular size from 
that point to the heater. This constriction makes the reservoir feed 
inadequate to supply the demand of the heater; and the deficit is 
drawn from the circulation loop, thus keeping the water in motion 
therein—which is the end in view. If a Y fitting is used, the circula¬ 
tion should attach to the branch, so that its flow w ill change direction 
only 45 degrees. If a tee fitting is used, the constriction should be 
in the branch, and the circulation connected at the end of the tee, so 
that its flow will not change course at all in joining the feed from 
the reservoir. 

The means of turning the sediment pipe on and off should always 
be a ground-key cock so that one can see at a glance whether it is on 
or off, as accidental emptying of the reservoir is dangerous. Another 
reason for using cocks is that the shearing action of the core, when 
turning,will cut off a piece of lint or other foreign matter that would not 
permit a compression stop to close tight. Whether a cock has closed 
tight, is not observable; and the whole supply in a tank job may 
in this way be lost without warning, leaving the heater dry. Unknown 
waste through the sediment cock retards heating. The failure of hot 
faucets to close tightly will waste water as fast as it is heated. Hot 







110 


PLUMBING 


faucets should have washers adapted to withstand heat, in order to 
avoid frequent repairing. 

Where lime or other deposits choke the water-back and connec¬ 
tions as ordinarily installed, both the annoyance and the danger may 


be avoided by following the plan 



Fig. 94. Reservoir Heated by Hot-Water 
Coil, Connected to Water-Back, Avoiding 
Choking from Lime or Other 
Deposits. 


shown in Fig. 94, in which the 
water is heated by water by con¬ 
duction through a coil in the 
reservoir. The water-back is con¬ 
nected to the coil; and an expan¬ 
sion tank, piped as shown, is pro¬ 
vided to take care of the expan¬ 
sion of the water in the primary 
heater or water-back. Distilled 
water is used in the back to avoid 
incrustation of the back and con¬ 
nections. C is the tank, which 
must be filled to above the flow 
connection. G is tank return; D, 
the drain to water-back and con¬ 
nections; E, a sediment cock on 
the reservoir proper. The flow 
from upper water-back connec¬ 
tion to expansion tank should be 
at least one size less than either 
the coil in the reservoir or its 
connections. 

When cost is not the desider¬ 
atum, direct-pressure plumbing is 
generally better if a tank is used, 
even though the initial pressure is 
ample and not excessive. The 


pressure on the fixtures is then 
always constant, and also mod¬ 


erate unless the building is very high. This point is important where 
the city pressure is sufficient for fire purposes, or when the pressure is 
carried abnormally high only during the need for fire purposes and 
then reduced. A high-pressure line feeding the house tank and con¬ 
trolled by a ball-cock, permits valves of simpler mechanism and 














































































PLUMBING 


111 


lighter pipe and fittings, and reduces water-hammer, etc. Moreover, 
much foreign matter carried in sus¬ 
pension is got rid of, subsidence 
improving the water and reducing 
the wear and tear on valves and 
washers to a minimum. 

Fig. 95 shows the essential 
connections of a house tank. B is 



Fig. 95. 


Essential Connections of a 
House Tank. 


the supply to tank. A ball-cock is 
used when city pressure supplies 
the tank; C is the drain-pipe, and B 
the overflow. K is the cold service 
to fixtures; and d the air-pipe en¬ 
abling the line to drain when the 
cock is turned off. The cold-service 
connection rises above any possible 
sediment level in the tank. J, L, N, 
etc., are extensions of the hot and 
cold fixture lines. 

Fig. 96 shows the distributing 
lines of a lead-supply tank instal¬ 
lation. A is the pipe leading from 
the tank to the reservoir, the cold 
for bathroom being branched from 
it above. B is the main hot service. 
D and E are range connections. 
F is a brace supporting the ring 
under the reservoir. The main 
stops are within reach from the 
floor. C supplies a hall lavatory, 
and also acts as a drain for the main 
lines. The arrangement permits 
supplying either hot or cold water 
to the little hall lavatory; and a 
cock at the lowest point in C enables 
the whole combination to drain 
through it when necessary. 

By reason of addition of fixtures, incrustation, or other sufficient 



Fig. 96. Distributing Lines of Lead 
Pipe for a Tank Installation. 








































































112 


PLUMBING 


k 


'! IT !i[i 

I| -"> i; II I 


cause, supplies sometimes fail to give water rapidly enough. This 
can be remedied by attaching a closed cylinder, and feeding from it. 
The pressure will fill the cylinder more or less when water is not 
being drawn, so that it will flow in abundance when a faucet or valve 
is opened. 

If the regular supply is dropped into a cylinder, a separate feed 
pipe is necessary. If the fixture line is large enough, the cylinder 

may be placed at 
the upper end, 
and a clieck- 
valve below the 

itjjjL/Sr—j &f ~di jj [j | _ s' lowest fixture to 

retain what en¬ 
ters the cylinder. 
Then, when a 
faucet is opened, 
the cylinder fur¬ 
nishes the water 
until it is ex¬ 
hausted or the 
street pressure 
supplements or 
overcomes the 
downward flow. 

Where the 
street pressure 
is not sufficient 
to reach upper 

floors, trouble is often experienced in pumping to the tank, on account 
of the sen ice being too small to fill the cylinder of the pump at ordinary 
speed. This can be overcome by placing a pocket or sort of air- 
chamber in the service, and connecting the pump suction to it. The 
influx of water to the pocket is constant, and the suction of the pump 
intermittent; hence the full, unchecked capacity of the service pipe 
is available to the pump. The air-chamber feature permits the water 
to leave the pocket easily. It is proper to place a check-valve on the 
house side of pump connection, to avoid annoyance from air when 
faucets used directlv are opened. 



Fig. 97. Double-Reservoir Installation for Heating Combined 
Direct and Tank Supply. Reservoir Consists' of Two Con¬ 
centric Cylinders, Outer One (Direct) being Connected to 
Water-Back, and Inner One Heated by Conduction. 



































































































































PLUMBING 


113 


Another problem of inadequate street pressure where part of 
the house is supplied from a tank, is the heating of the water of both 
systems. Only large hotel ranges maintain two fires; and there is 
not ordinarily room for two heaters in one firebox without interfering 
with the fire or with the baking properties of the cooker; and mixing 
the supplies is prohibitive. r Ihe difficulty has been overcome in two 
ways. In one, a double reservoir is used, the low pressure (water 
from the tank) being turned into the inner one, which is concentric 
with the outer. A job of this kind is illustrated in Fig. 97. The 
room required for one reservoir is thus saved, and no extra water-back 
or secondary heat is necessary. One set only of range heater con¬ 
nections are made—to the outer reservoir. The inner reservoir being 1 
entirely encased by the water of the outer one, the heating of the water 
in the inner one is accomplished by conduction only. The range 
heater might be connected to the inner reservoir; but the surface for 
conduction would be the same, and much heat, received by conduction 
only, would be radiated from the walls of the outer reservoir. The 
low pressure might also be connected to the outer reservoir; but 
greater care in providing against the possibility of the inner one col¬ 
lapsing would be necessary, as it is or should be made of copper. In 
double-reservoir jobs, a connection, with check-valve, from the street 
cold to the tank cold, is made at the reservoir. In this way, if the tank 
should become empty, the street pressure opens the check-valve 
without attention, and keeps the inner reservoir filled, and of course 
supplies automatically any fixture on the high-pressure system that 
the street pressure will reach. 

A second plan of heating the water of both systems, also by con¬ 
duction, is to use two independent reservoirs. The system requiring 
the greatest amount of hot water is given a direct connection to the 
heater, except that a secondary heater for warming the water of the 
other system by water is interposed in the upper pipe of the connec¬ 
tions leading to the firebox. The secondary heater has a series of 
channels or cells, all connecting and pressure-tight and provided with 
openings for pipe connection. The water of one reservoir is connected 
to these openings in the secondary heater, just the same as though it 
were in the firebox; and the water of one system is in that way heated 
bv conduction, by circulation of heated water of the other passing 
from the range heater to the reservoir. 






114 


PLUMBING 


The third method of providing double-boiler service is shown in 
Fig. 98. Referring to the engraving, A is a lj-inch pipe, leading 
directly to the tank, and bending over the top. It is connected to a 
pump in the basement. B is the main supply from the street, to 
which pipe A is connected at a lower point. No. 2 is a check-valve 
placed in the main street supply for the purpose of preventing the 
pump from drawing water from the street-pressure reservoir while 
pumping water into the tank in the attic. This might occur for vari¬ 
ous reasons if a check-valve is not used, and would certainly result in 
case the pump should be operated while the street supply was shut 
off. Check-valve No. 2 also prevents the tank water from going into 
the street pipe when both systems are working under high pressure. 
In practice, a drain-cock should be placed in pipe B above check 
No. 2. C is the main cold supply, leading directly from the tank to 
the kitchen, without branches to fixtures at any point. It connects 
above check-valve 3 to a pipe leading to the tank-pressure reservoir. 
From the lower end of check 3, a pipe leads over to the main cold 
supply B. The superior pressure of the tank system keeps check 3 
closed, so that water cannot enter the tank system or reservoir from 
the street while there is pressure upon it from the. tank supply. How¬ 
ever, immediately upon the tank becoming empty, or its pressure 
shut off at cock No. 9, the pressure falls in the tank-system pipes 
until the pressure is inferior to the street pressure, and check No. 3 
opens upward and allows the street pressure to keep the tank-pressure 
reservoir filled. Otherwise trouble might possibly result, but it is 
not so probable as in jobs having one reservoir within the other. This 
check admits of both reservoirs filling without having water in the 
tank when the job is first started; and although it is a minor point 
to speak of, it is best to be prepared for accidents. 

The main cold supply from the tank is controlled by stop-cock 
No. 9. Just below the cock a small pipe is branched in, and carried up 
and curved over the top of the tank, to admit air when it is desired 
to drain the pipe. D acts as a drain to the hot-water pipes of 
both reservoirs. The sediment pipes of the reservoirs are also 
connected to it. 

To aid the reader in tracing the different pipes easily, all the hot- 
water pipes are represented by heavy black lines, and the cold-water 
pipes by double parallel lines. C l is the cold supply to tank-pressure 




PLUMBING 


115 



Third Floor 


» C 1 
> C 


Second. Floor 


b' 

b 


reservoir; C 2 , tank 
supply, cold water, 
to fixtures on the 
second and third 
floors; C\ cold sup¬ 
ply to street pres¬ 
sure reservoir; and 
C 4 , cold supply from 
street pressure to 
fixtures on the first 
floor. FF are hot 
and cold faucets at 
the kitchen sink, 
the hot being on the 
left side. II is the 
main hot supply of 
the tank system; IF, 
hot supply from 
the tank reservoir 
to the fixtures on 
the second and 
third floors; IP, 
main hot supply 
from the street- 
pressure reservoir; 
and IP, hot supply 
from the street res¬ 
ervoir to the fix¬ 
tures on the first 
floor. 

It will be no¬ 
ticed that each of 
the supplies h a s 
been carried up as 
high as the top of 
the tan k, and 
curved at the end 
so that they will discharge into it, which, in the case of hot supplies, 






U2 


'5f 

Basement 

> 

* 

7 < 

J 2 



Fig. 98. Double-Reservoir Installation for Heating Combined 
Direct and Tank Supply. Two Independent Reservoirs, 
Each Connected to a Water-Back. 










































































































































































110 


PLUMBING 


might occur from steaming. The extension of the fixture supplies to 
the top of the tank with ends left open, insures that they will drain 
themselves when the water is shut off; and also cushions the pressure 
when the faucets are turned off quickly, the same as air-chambers do 
on direct-pressure systems. 

The hot and cold supplies from the street reservoir might be left 
off at the point where the branches are made on the first floor, without 
causing any material difference in the working. In that case, how¬ 
ever, there would be no vapor relief for the reservoir through the hot- 
water pipe; and when the cocks were shut off, none of the pipe would 
drain unless the faucets were opened upstairs. As it is, the main 
line will drain whether the faucets are open or not; and there is 
also the advantage of the air-cushion and relief as well. 

Of the cocks over the kitchen sink, only those which have waste 
tubes indicated—on the pipes leading to fixtures on the upper floors— 
are stop and waste cocks. The others are plain stops which prevent 
any chance of causing them to waste continually by some error in 
using them. Stops and waste would be of little value on the lines 
above the sink which lead direct to the reservoirs, because it is not 
particularly desirable to drain any of the pipe between the cocks and 
the reservoirs while the cocks mentioned are shut off. 

The branches aa l , bb 1 , and cc 1 , are of f-inch pipe, and supply 
fixtures on the first floor from the street pressure, and on the second and 
third floors from the tank pressure. W and IT represent water-backs, 
both of which are in the same firebox of the range. One of them is 
connected to the tank reservoir by means of circulating pipes 12 and 
14, while the other is connected to the street reservoir by pipes 11 and 
13. The sediment pipes of the reservoirs are controlled by cocks 4 
and 5. Both of the sediment pipes discharge into the general drain¬ 
pipe 1). The overflow pipe of the tank is indicated by X. Y and Y 
are vacuum valves situated over the kitchen sink. They communicate 
with the reservoirs through branches from .the main-hot supplies. 

By referring to the engraving, the reader will see that there is no 
way to cut off communication between the reservoirs and the vacuum 
valves. With the valves placed at the sink as shown, the weight of 
the water in the vertical pipe above the valves must be overcome 
before air will enter the reservoirs. If desired, the valves may be 
placed in the heads of the reservoirs, and a pipe carried over to the 






PLUMBING 


117 


sink to take care of the drippings. In this style of double-boiler 
wor k, vacuum valves are not so important as they are in systems 
having one reservoir within the other, because the reservoirs here 
described work under about the same conditions as those in ordinary 
single-reservoir jobs. The tell-tale pipe discharges over the kitchen 
sink, and is indicated by Z. Cock 6 is to drain the hot-water pipe 
from the street reservoir, and cock 7 drains the hot pipe from the tank 
reservoir. 


Cock 8 is placed in a connection where, when turned on, it allows 
the tank pressure to by-pass check valve N o. 3. By this means, both 
systems may be worked under high-pressure duty when the street 
pressure is off. In a case where the street pressure is constant for the 
fixtures on the first floor, but does not reach the second, cock 8 will 
seldom have to be used, and it should then be of a type having a 
removable handle. 

One point gained by bringing the pipes down and up, as shown by 
the loops over the sink, is, that every stop can be reached from the 
floor without the aid of a ladder. The fixtures on the upper floors 
can be shut off without interfering with the supply to kitchen sink 
or other fixtures that may happen to be on the lower floors. 

The sizes of the pipes shown in this installation, which have not 
already been given, are as follows: B and C, f-inch; C l , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , 
|-inch; D, f-inch; FF, f-inch; II , IF, IP, IP, f-inch; X, 14-inch; 
YY, |-inch; Z, f-inch; 11 and 12, 1-inch; 13 and 14, f-inch. Cocks 
4 and 5 are f-inch; 6, 7, and 8, f-inch; and 10, 1 f-inch. 

Plumbers habitually having this type of work to contend with— 
New Yorkers, for instance—become ultra-skilful in meeting the 
difficulties presented by variable pressure. The range of variation 
may cover the second floor of one building and the third of another, 
according to elevation. The fixtures on the floor with intermittent 
street supply can be placed wholly on the tank system, only at the 
expense of pumping all the water used in them. To take advantage of 
the street pressure reaching those fixtures at certain hours, four cocks 
are arranged so that one handle will turn all of them at once—two 
closing the tank hot and cold supply from the fixtures on that floor, 
and two admitting instead the street-pressure hot and cold. 

There are many interesting features in piping water for municipal 
service, but it is not in the province of this work to consider them. 





118 


PLUMBING 


GAS PIPING 

The work of piping for gas is so closely allied to that of plumbing, 
since iron pipe has come into general use, that a brief notice of this 
branch is not out of place in connection with matters pertaining to 
plumbing. Coal gas is only about one-half the specific weight of air. 
The weight of natural gas is somewhat less than that of coal gas. 
The distribution of pressures which prevails in a closed system—the 
pressure of the fluid being equal at every point—should not be lost 
sight of in considering the ordinary method of distributing gas over 
a city or through a building in closed pipes. Although it would be 

MAtN R/S£R true that in an open vessel the 
pressure of illuminating gas would 
by reason of its low specific grav¬ 
ity be greater at the top of the 
vessel than at the bottom, this is 
not the case in a closed system in 
which a fixed pressure is main¬ 
tained. 

The most economical pressure 
at which to consume gas is five- 
tenths of an inch water pressure. 
As no town is strictly level, and the 
friction of the pipe requires some 
head of pressure to overcome it, 
the pressure in the mains is car¬ 
ried above the point at which the best results are obtained. This is 
generally counteracted by not turning on the full amount at the 
burner. In towns varying greatly in the level of different portions, 
it is economy to use an automatic governor to reduce the pressure. 
This is true of exceedingly tall buildings, too. But in the tall building, 
one governor for the whole is not enough; the supply to the upper 
floors should be controlled by a governor situated on one of the upper 
floors. 

Large pipe should not be notched into joists in the middle of 
their length; it weakens the joists. All pipes should be laid with a 
decline, toward the meter when possible, otherwise in such a way that 
they will drain toward a fixture or drip. The meter should be placed 
in a position easily accessible, and where it may be read without the 




























PLUMBING 


ne 


use of an artificial light. It is connected in the house main on the 
street side of the first branch. A dry meter—the kind now almost 
universally employed—is shown in Fig. 99. 

Different meters vary but little in the arrangement of the dials. 
In iaige meters, there are as many as five or more dials; but those 
used for dwelling houses usually have but three. Fig. 100 shows the 
common form of index in a dry meter. The small index hand D, on 
the uppei dial, is not taken into consideration when reading the meter, 
but is used merely for testing. The three dials, which record the con¬ 
sumption of gas, are marked A, B, and C ; and in each, a complete rev¬ 
olution of the index hand denotes 1,000,10,000, and 100,000 cubic feet, 
respectively. The index hands do not move in the same direction. 
When the hands are pointing upward, A and C move from left to right, 




Fig. 100. Common Form of Index on “Dry” Gas Meter. Two Readings are Shown. 

while B moves in the opposite direction. Annex two cyphers at the 
right of the figures indicated when taking the statement of a meter. 
The left-hand index shown in Fig 100 reads 48,700. Suppose, after 
being used for a time, the hands should have the positions shown in 
the right-hand dial. This would read 64,900; and the amount of 
gas used during the interval would equal the difference in the readings: 
64,900 — 48,700 = 16,200 cubic feet. Meters so invariably register 
in favor of the consumer after being in use only a few weeks, that the 
companies are by law permitted to set them 3 per cent fast when new. 

The route chosen for gas pipes should be the warmest consistent 
with convenience and economy. Coal gas will freeze—that is, the 
moisture in it will, in severe weather, form a network of frost that 
checks or stops the flow. Coal gas and natural gas are practically 
fixed. There is little trouble from condensation, even from coal gas, 
after it reaches the residence. There is sufficient reason, however, to 






























120 


PLUMBING 


incline the pipe and to avoid trapping any portion so that it will not 
drain. If a pipe runs through a cold place, a drip should be put in 
at some convenient point where it can be emptied if necessary. No 
offsets should be made in a way to favor choking the pipe by the 
products of corrosion falling down vertical parts. No fixture or 
bracket opening should be less than f-inch; no rising main less than 
f-inch» All openings for fixtures should have straight threads, and 
the pipe or fittings should be well secured, perpendicular to the wall 
passed through, so that they will not wobble, push in, or pull out. 
Ceiling drops should be cemented in the joint at the line, so that they 
will not unscrew when the cap is removed or a fixture taken down. 




icHECK § ± 

Fig. 101.Symbols Used in Piping Diagrams. 


The making of intelligent working diagrams for gas or water 
fitting, is not difficult. Though important, comparatively few have 
given it due attention. When plans are accurate, the usual work of 
making figures to show what length the pipes are, may be dispensed 

with by employing self¬ 
measuring ruled sheets in 
conjunction with the method 
of diagramming here de¬ 
scribed. Diagramming sys¬ 
tematically and with all 
lines approximately proportional in length, saves time in distributing 
the pipe. There is no wondering whether a piece runs down or up, 
or as to which room a bracket light looks into, or whether a 
piece of pipe belongs in a horizontal or in a vertical position. A 
properly made diagram indicates these points clearly, and also 
what pieces belong in the same plane. There should never be any 
confusion as to which pieces have been cut and which not, when 
getting out the pipe. Symbols can be made to show what pieces have 
been cut and what size they are. The symbols found by practice 
to answer this purpose best, are as follows: When a f-inch piece is 
cut, a common’check mark is put beside the line on the diagram, show¬ 
ing that it is f inch and has been cut. For a f-inch piece, a short, 
straight mark like the letter I, placed across the line, is used. For 
a J-inch piece, two connected marks like V are made across the 
line. For f-inch pieces, three connected marks, like the capital N, 
are made across the line. For 1-inch pieces, four connected marks, 
like the capital letter M, are used across the line. For 1 f-inch 










PLUMBING 


121 


pieces, fi\ e connected murks, like tlie capital A\ with one extra leg, 
are used. Each short, straight mark represents a quarter-inch in the 
diameter of the pipe, except in the case of f-inch pipe. For nipples 
that are too short to put the symbols on, draw a waved arrow from 
the nipple, and put the symbol upon it. Fig. 101 shows the symbols 
described, with corresponding sizes of pipe marked beneath them. 

In reading plans of buildings, it is usual to have the front of 
the building, as represented by the plans, next to the person. Plans 
represent horizontal sections at the elevations designated; while 
elevations show the altitude of one floor above the other, etc. The 
plans of the different floors of a building are usually drawn side by 
side, with the outside face of the front wall on a line. By this means, 
a straight edge laid across the plans from side to side, will show which 
partitions are in line with one another. One can judge with the eye, 
on the cross-partitions, accurately enough to give a good idea of the 
relative position of the rooms on different floors, one way; but to locate 
the partitions running from front to back, it is necessary to measure 
from the wall on the plans of the different floors. House plans are 
almost always drawn to J-inch scale. In gasfitting diagrams, all 
sizes of pipe are represented by single or skeleton lines, because the 
pipes are small. 

Now, assuming the plans to be marked for gas, center the rooms, 
and chalk all wall openings. Then proceed to diagram the lines 
representing the pipe, making them as nearly proportional to the 
length of pipe as can easily be done with pocket-rule and pencil, say 
to J-inch scale. 

Represent all vertical pipes by diagonal lines parallel to one 
another, whether they be bracket pipes, risers, or offsets in the line. 
Never represent a horizontal pipe by a diagonal line. Every vertical 
pipe which falls below the horizontal pipe to which it is connected, 
should be drawn toward the front of the plan at an angle of 45 degrees 
to the left. Every vertical pipe which rises above the horizontal pipe 
to which it is connected, should be drawn away from the front of the 
plan, at an angle of 45 degrees to the right. Represent all horizontal 
pipes by parallel lines perpendicular either to front or to side wall. 
When the run of pipe is from front to back, the parallel lines should be 
perpendicular to the front wall of the building. When the run is 
from side to side, the parallel lines should be perpendicular to the side 







122 


PLUMBING 


wall of the building. Any line in the diagram that is perpendicular 
to any other line of the diagram may then be taken to represent a 
horizontal pipe. Any number of lines representing horizontal pipe 
and all joined together, are thus indicated to be in the same horizontal 
plane. Any single line or system of lines representing horizontal pipe, 
but separated from the others by a diagonal line, is therefore in a 

different horizontal 
plane. For in¬ 
stance, the second- 
floor riser, 10 feet 
3 inches long, 
shown in the dia¬ 
gram, Fig. 102, con¬ 
nects the horizontal 
pipe under the sec¬ 
ond floor with that 
under the t h i r d 
floor. These pipes 
are in different 
planes, one set be¬ 
ing 10 feet 3 inches 
above the other. 

There is one ex¬ 
ception to the rule 
eoncerningdiagonal 



lines. Several feet 
of pipe can often 
be saved by cutting 
across, instead of 
making an angle 

with, the pipe. To do this without danger of confusing one as to 
whether the diagonal piece is intended for vertical pipe or for a di¬ 
agonal piece in the horizontal plane, make such lines dotted instead 
of solid, as shown at C, Fig. 102. 

To indicate the direction in which bracket openings look, by the 
way in which they are drawn, eight skeleton diagrams of bracket pipes, 
showing how the direction of bracket openings would be indicated 
for the four walls of a square room, are shown in Fig. 103. A, B, C, and 





















PLUMBING 


123 


D show that the pipes are vertical and run up from the floor below, 
A looking into the room from the front wall, B from the rear, C from 
the left side wall, and D from the right side wall. In accordance 
with plan drawing, the short lines representing the ears and nozzle 
of the drop-ells are made in plan position with dots at the ends to 
represent caps. The ears of the fitting, drawn in front of the out¬ 
let, show that the fitting looks to the rear; ears behind the outlet 
show that it looks to the front; at the left of it, that it looks to the 
right; and to the right of it, that the fitting looks to the left. 

A 1 , B 1 , C\ and D x show fittings that look in the same direction 
as those shown by A, B, C, D of the same figure, but are on pipes that 
run down from the horizontal pipe. By varying the positions of the 
marks representing the 
drop fittings to suit, 
the diagram can be 
made to indicate open¬ 
ings pointing in any 
direction desired. 

All 1 arge risers 
should be exposed to 
view; and it is desir¬ 
able to keep all piping 

P Fig. 103. Skeleton Diagrams of Bracket Pipes, 

accessible as tar as 

possible, so that it may be easily reached for repairs if necessary. 
When it is necessary to trap a pipe, a drip with a drain-cock must 
be put in; but this should always be avoided under floors or in other 
inaccessible places. Where possible, it is better to carry up a main 
riser near the center of the building, as the distributing pipes will 
then average smaller, the timbers will not require so much cutting, 
and the flow of gas will be more uniform throughout. 

Unless otherwise directed, outlets for brackets should be placed 
5J feet from the floor, except in the case of hallways and bathrooms, 
wdiere it is customary to place them 6 feet or more from the floor. 
LTpright pipes should be plumb, so that nipples which project through 
the w T alls will be level; the nipples should not project more than f 
inch from the face of the plastering. Laths and plaster together 
are usually about j inch thick, so that the nipples should project 
about 1^ inches from the face of the studding. Drop - or side-ells are 







124 


PLUMBING 


used where possible for bracket openings. Gas pipes should never 
be placed on the bottom of floor timbers that are to be lathed and 
plastered, because they are inaccessible in case of leakage or altera¬ 
tions. Fig. 104 illustrates some lines of gaspipe in a frame build¬ 



ing, from which may be gleaned graphic ideas of how to fasten pipe 
securely in place. 

Coal gas, and natural gas of some locations, has a strong odor 
that betrays leakage. Some natural gas is devoid of odor, in which 
case leakage is very dangerous, as there is no way quickly to detect 
its presence. For natural gas work, 10 pounds’ air-pressure should 
fail to develop the slightest leak in the pipe, although the street pres¬ 
sure is usually even less than eight ounces. For lighting gas, the street 
pressure is seldom over 18 tenths water-pressure, and a 5-pound test 

















































































































PLUMBING 


125 


is ample. These tests should be made with a mercury gauge, 2 inches 
height of column being considered as one pound pressure. A job 
may be considered tight when the mercury column not only does not 
drop, but does not even get flat at the top in from fifteen to twenty 
minutes’ trial. 

Every gas company has rules as to the number of lights allowed 
to be supplied from each size pipe, and the relative lengths of pipe 
permitted of each size. The following table gives sizes of gas pipes 
for different numbers of burners and lengths of runs, as usually 
installed: 

TABLE IV 


Maximum Run and Number of Burners for Gas Pipes 


Size of Pipe 

Greatest Length 
of Run, Feet 

Greatest Number 
of Burners to 
be Supplied 

f inch 

20 feet 

2 

1 “ 

30 “ 

4 

3 

50 “ 

15 

1 “ 

70 “ 

25 

14 inches 

100 “ 

40 

H “ 

150 “ 

70 

2" “ 

200 “ 

140 

91 u 

300 “ 

225 

3 “ 

400 “ 

300 

4 “ 

500 “ 

500 


No restrictions are observed in selecting fixtures for coal or 
natural gas. Coal gas carries enough carbon with it to produce a 
lighting flame when burned at the ordinary flame temperature. When 
the jet is lighted, the hydrogen is consumed in the lower part of the 
flame, producing sufficient heat to render incandescent the minute 
particles of carbon carried by it. The hydrogen, in the process of 
combustion, combines with the oxygen of the air, forming an invisible 
vapor of water, while the carbon unites with the oxygen, forming 
carbonic acid, or is set free as soot. 

Various causes tend to render combustion incomplete. There 
may be excessive pressure of gas, lack of air, or defective burners. 
An excess of pressure at the burners causes a reduction of the amount 
of illumination; on the other hand, if the pressure is insufficient, the heat 
of the flame will not raise the carbon to a white heat, and the result will 


















126 


PLUMBING 


be a smoky flame. It therefore follows that for every burner there is 
a certain pressure (usually - f 5 F of an inch water-pressure before men- 



Fig. 105. Single- 
Jet Burner. 


Fig. 106. Bat’s-Wing 
or Slit Burner. 


Fig. 107. Union-Jet or 
Fish-Tail Burner. 




tioned) and a certain corresponding flow of gas, which will cause the 
brightest illumination. 



Fig. 108. Vertical Section of 
Union-Jet Burner. 


Fig. 109. Argand 
Burner. 


Fig. 110. Lava Tip for 
Bat’s-Wing Burner. 


There are a great variety of burners upon the market, among 
which the single-jet, bat’s-wing, fish-tail, Argand, regenerative, and 
incandescent burners are the principal types. 


Fig. 111. Gas Burner with 
Globe and Incandescent 
Mantle. 




Fig. 112. Mantle Burner 
with Chimney and 
Shade. 


The single-jet burner, Fig. 105, is the simplest kind, having but 
one small hole from which the gas issues. It is suitable only where 
a very small flame is required. 













































































































PLUMBING 


127 


The bat s-wvng or slit burner, Fig. 106, has a hemispherical tip 
with a narrow vertical slit from which the gas spreads out in a thin, 
flat sheet, gi\ing a wide and rather low 7 flame resembling in shape the 
wing of a bat, from which it is named. 

The union-jet or fish-tail burner, Fig. 107, consists of a flat tip 
slightly depressed or concaved in the center, with two small holes 
drilled, as shown in Fig. 108. Two jets of equal size issue from 
these holes, and, by impinging upon each other, produce, at right 
angles to the alignment of the holes, a flat flame longer and narrower 
in shape than the bat’s-wing, and not unlike the tail of a fish. Neither 
of these burners requires a chimney, but the flames are usually encased 
with glass globes. They are not w 7 ell suited for use with globes, 
however, since w 7 hen one of the jets becomes 
choked, as it frequently does, the other is likely to 
crack the glass. 

The Argand burner, Fig. 109, consists of a 
hollow’ ring of metal or lava, connected with the 
gas tube, and perforated on its upper surface 
with a series of fine holes, from which the gas is¬ 
sues, forming a round flame. This burner re¬ 
quires a glass or mica chimney. As an intense 
heat of combustion tends to increase the brilliancy 
of the flame, it is desirable that the burner tips 
shall be of a material that will cool the flame as 
little as possible. On this account, metal tips 
are inferior to those made of some non-conduct¬ 
ing material, such as lava, adamant, enamel, etc. 

Metal tips are also objectionable because they cor- Flg - 11 B U rner 3unsen 
rode rapidly, and thus obstruct the passage of the 
gas. Fig. 110 show’s a lava tip for a bat’s-wing burner. Burner tips 
should be cleaned occasionally, but care should be taken not to enlarge 
the holes. 

By introducing the Bunsen principle, incandescent burners give 
good service with coal gas. In the incandescent burner, the heat 
of the flame is applied in raising to incandescence some foreign mater¬ 
ial, such as a basket of magnesium or platinum wires, or a funnel- 
shaped asbestos wick, or a mantle treated with sulphate of zir¬ 
conium and other chemical compounds. A burner of this kind 


















128 


PLUMBING 


is shown in Fig. Ill, in which the mantle can be seen supported over 
the gas flame by a wire at the side. Fig. 112 shows another form 



Fig. 114. Gas Burner for Brazing. 



Fig. 115. Single Gas-Cock 
with Stop-Pin. 


of this burner, in which a chimney and shade are used in place of a 



Fig. 116. Double Gas-Cock with Stop-Pins. 


Fig. 117. Elbow Gas-Cock with 
Stop-Pin. 


globe. Burners of this kind give a very brilliant white light when 




used with natural or water gas. Natural gases and the so-called 
water gas are deficient in carbon; and, when they are used for lighting 
















































PLUMBING 


129 


purposes, the light is produced by a burner with a mantle brought to 
a state of incandescence by the heat of the flame. The mantle, 
however, is very fragile, and is likely to lose its property of incan¬ 
descence when exposed to an atmosphere containing much dust. 

The Bunsen burner, shown in Fig. 113, is a form much used for 
laboratory work. It burns with a bluish flame, and gives an intense 
heat without smoke or soot. The gas, before ignition, is mixed with 
a certain quantity of air, the pro¬ 
portions of gas and air being regu¬ 
lated by the thumb-screw at the 
bottom, and by screwing the outer 
tube up or down, thus admitting a 
greater or less quantity of air at the 
openings -indicated by the arrows. 

This same principle is utilized in a 
burner for brazing, the general form 
of which is shown in Fig. 114. A 
flame of this kind will easily melt 
brass in the open air. 

It is of great importance that 
gas keys on fixtures should be per¬ 
fectly tight. It is rare to find a 
house piped for gas where the 
pressure test could be successfully 
applied without first removing the 
fixtures, as the joints of folding 
brackets, extension pendants, stop¬ 
cocks, etc., are usually found to leak 
more than the piping. The old- 
fashioned all-around cock without check-pin should never be allowed 
under any conditions; only those provided with stop-pins are safe. 
Various forms of cocks with stop-pins are shown in Figs. 115, 116, 
and 117. All key joints should be examined and tightened up 
occasionally to prevent them becoming seriously loose and leaky. 

Poor illumination is frequently caused by ill-designed or poorly 
constructed brackets or gasoliers. Gas fixtures, almost without 
exception, are designed solely from an artistic standpoint, without due 
regard to the proper conditions for obtaining the best illumination. 



Fig. 120. Plain Type of Two-Bm - ner 
Gasolier. 













130 


PLUMBING 


Fixtures having too many scrolls or spirals may, in the case of imper¬ 
fectly purified gas, accumulate a large amount of a tarry deposit, 
which, in time, hardens and obstructs the passages. Another fault 



Fig. 121. Ornamental Type of Two-Burner Gasolier. 



is the use of very small tubing for the fixtures. Common forms of 
brackets are shown in Figs. 118 and 119, the latter being a two-swing 
extension bracket. 

There are an endless variety of gasoliers used, depending upon 

the kind of building, the 
finish of the room, and the 
number of lights required. 
Figs. 120,121, and 122 show 
common forms for dwelling 
houses the type shown in 
Fig. 122 being used for halls 
and corridors. 

Next to the burner, the shape of the globe or shade surrounding 
the flame affects the illuminating power of the light. In order to 
obtain the best results, the flow of air to the flame must be steady and 



Fig. 123. Simple Form of Gas Plate with Three 

Burners. 























































PLUMBING 


1.31 


uniform. Where the air supply is insufficient, the flame is likely to 

smoke; on the other hand, too strong a current of air causes the lieht 
to flicker and become dim 



through cooling. 

Globes with open¬ 
ings too small at the 
bottom, should not be 
used. Four inches at 
the bottom should be the 
smallest opening used for 
an ordinary size burner. 

All glass globes absorb 
more or less light, the 
loss varying from 10 per 
cent for clear glass, to 70 
per cent or more for opal, 
ground, colored, or 
painted globes. (dear glass is therefore much more economical, 


Fig. 134. 


Gas Range for Family Use, with Ovens and 
Water-Heater. 


although, where softness of light is especially desired, the use of opal 
or ground globes is made necessary. 

Cooking as well as heating by gas is now very common, and there 

are a great variety of appli¬ 
ances for the use of gas in this 
way. Cooking by gas is not 
more expensive, and is less 
troublesome, than by coal, oil, 
or wood. It is also more 

Fig. 125. Griddle Burner for Gas Range. 

healthlul, on account of the ab¬ 



sence of waste heat, smoke, and dust. A gas range is always ready 
for use, and is instantly lighted by applying a match to the burner. 
The fire, when kindled, is at once capable of doing its full work; it 
is easily regulated, and can be shut off the moment one is through 



Fig. 126. Oven Burner for Gas Range. 


with it, so that, if properly managed, there is no w^aste as is the 
case with other fuel. With gas, the kitchen can be kept compar¬ 
atively cool and comfortable in summer. 



















































132 


PLUMBING 


Gas stoves are made in all sizes, from the simple form shown in 
Fig. 123, to the most elaborate range for hotel use. A range for 

family use, with ovens and water- 
heater, is shown in Fig. 124. Figs. 
125 and 126 show the forms of 
burners used for cooking, the former 
being a griddle burner, and the 
latter an oven burner . 

A broiler is shown in Fig. 127; 
the sides are lined with asbestos, 
and the gas is introduced through 
a large number of small openings. 
The asbestos becomes heated, and 
the effect is about the same as a 
charcoal fire upon both sides. 

Gas as a fuel has not been used to 
any great extent for the warming 





Fig. 127. Gas Broiler, Asbestos-Lined. 



Fig. 128. Common Form of Port- Fig. 129. Gas Radiator. * 

able Heater, Connected by Rub¬ 
ber Tubing to Gas-Jet. 


of whole buildings, its application being usually confined to the heating 
of single rooms. Unlike cooking by gas, a gas fire for heating is not 
































































































































































































































































PLUMBING 


133 


so cheap as a coal fire when kept burning constantly. ].n other ways 
it is effecti\ e and convenient. It is especially adapted to the warming 
of small apartments and single rooms where heat is wanted only 
occasionally and foi brief periods of time. In the case of bedrooms, 
bathrooms, or dressing-rooms, a gas fire is preferable to other modes of 
warming, and is fully as economical. It may be used on cold winter 



to Chimney. 



Fig. 131. Asbestos Incandescent Grate, 



Fig. 132. Gas Log of Metal or Terra-Cotta and 
Asbestos. 


days as a supplementary source of heat in houses heated by stoves or 
by furnaces. Again, a gas fire may be used as a substitute for the 
regular heating apparatus in a house, in the spring or fall, when the 
fire in the furnace or boiler has not yet been started. It is often 
employed as the only means for heating smaller bedrooms, guest 
rooms, and bathrooms, and for temporary heating in summer hotels 
where fires are required only on occasional cold days. Any con- 













































































134 


PLUMBING 


siderable use of gas for heating necessitates the use of evaporators to 
maintain the normal humidity of the air. 

The most common form of heater is that shown in Fig. 128. 
This is easily carried from room to room, and may be connected with a 
gas-jet by means of rubber tubing, after removing the tip. The 
heater is merely a large burner surrounded by a sheet-iron jacket. 
Another and more powerful gas heater is the radiator, shown in Pig. 
129. This is fitted with a flue to conduct the products of combustion 
into the chimney, as shown in the section, Fig. 130. Each section 
of the radiator consists of an outer and an inner tube, with the gas 
flame between the two. This space is connected with the flue, while 
the air to be heated is drawn up through the inner tube, as shown by 
the arrows. 

Fig. 131 shows an asbestos incandescent grate ; and Fig. 132, a 
gas log of metal or terra-cotta and asbestos, made in imitation of a 
wood log or heap of logs. The gas issues through small openings in 
the logs, and gives the appearance of an open wood fire. 

Fuel gas or water gas, largely made to supplement failing supplies 
of natural gas, is used for lighting in the same manner as natural gas. 
It is, in fact, but an impure commercial hydrogen made by injecting 
steam into hot coke. The oxygen of the steam combines with the 
carbon of the coke, and sets free the hydrogen, which is collected 
in a gasometer, ready for the distributing pipes. The prime use of this 
and of natural gases is for heating; but, by purifying it and supple¬ 
menting it with carbon by incorporating with it vapors of petroleum, 
fuel gas makes rich and quite stable lighting gas. 

Carburetted air, made by varnishing air with gasoline, generally 
called gasoline gas, is very different from any of the gases mentioned. 
Carburetted air gas of standard quality contains 15 per cent of gasoline 
vapor to 85 per cent of air. A regulator or mixer for supplying gas 
having these proportions is shown, in section, in Fig. 133. In consists 
of a cast-iron case, in which is suspended a sheet-metal can B, filled 
with air and closely sealed. The balance-beam E, to which this is 
hung, is supported by the pin Id, on agate bearings. Since the weight 
of the can B is exactly balanced by the ball on the beam E, movement 
of B can be caused only by a difference in the weight or density of the 
gas inside the chamber A and surrounding the can B. If the gas 
becomes too dense, B rises and opens the valve C, thus admitting 






PLUMBING 


135 


CAS OUTLET 
TO R/SER 
Of BU/LO/NG 


more air; and if it becomes too light, C closes and partially or wholly 
shuts off the air, as may be required. This gas is not a stable mixture, 
and great care must be taken, in piping it, to avoid traps and give 
positive inclination to all the pipe. It is easily condensed by change of 
temperature; and fixtures through which it is used, must be of a 
pattern that drain to the keys, so that they can be removed with a 
screw-driver to drain the arms. The gravity of the mixture varies 
with the grade of gasoline used. It may always be taken as the 
weight of air 
plus the gasoline 
carried with the 
air. Hence the 
greatest pressure 
is always at the 
lowest instead of 
the hig h e s t 
point; and in¬ 
stead of lighting 
a burner by hold¬ 
ing the flame 
over it, we apply 
the match below. 

In general, other 
rules for piping 
gas apply, with 
the exceptions 
mentioned, and 
these following: 
the pipe should 
always be a size 

larger than for coal gas, except that f-inch pipe may be run for two 
or three burners, and f-inch openings are permissible. 

To avoid having the pressure on the lower floor equal to the 
friction head of the whole system plus the weight of the gas, it is best 
to pipe the whole supply first to the top of the house. Then feed 
downward, and drip the main extremities into the initial main with a 
f-inch connection. This permits circulation according to the tempera¬ 
ture of the rooms; and, by giving just enough pressure at the pump 



GAS 

INLET 


AIR 

INLE 


Fig. 133. Regulator or Mixer for Supplying Gas and Air Mixed 

in Certain Pi'oportions. 





































































































































































































































































































PLUMBING 


137 


to lift the gas easily to the top of the rising main, it feeds by gravity 
from that point. The least pressure possible is thus sufficient, and 
the pressure at each burner is constant. 

With the exception of one or two machines, the use of Argand or 



• other special burners is necessary. The Clough burner, oftenest used 
on gasoline, has an annular space below the tip, open at the top only. 
A thumb-screw passes through the outer case, annular space, and 
inner wall, to the gas passage. When the carburetter is first filled. 
















































































































































138 


PLUMBING 


the gas is too rich, and the thumb-screws of the burners must be 
screwed out until the gas passing up can suck in more air from the 
annular space through the screw-hole. I he gravity of the gasoline left 
in the carburetter grows constantly greater; carburization takes place 
correspondingly slower; and the gas delivered is accordingly poorer. 
This is because gasoline of various gravities is found in every barrel, 


and the air takes up the lightest first. 

The pump for these machines is a sheet-metal case on legs, with 
an inner drum, made like the drum of a wet gas-meter and sealed 
with water. The drum is generally operated by a weight, through the 
medium of pulleys, and a cord wound on a spool attached to a shaft 


extending from the drum through a stuffing-box, all about as shown 
in Fig. 134. The pump is placed in the basement, where it will not 
freeze. In some makes, city water-pressure is made to run the pump 
by means of a water-wheel, gravity and impingement of the stream 
both acting to revolve the drum. 

Carburetters are made of sheet metal, galvanized iron, or copper. 
One form is simply a strong tank with a float and telescope pipe 
operating through a stuffing-box. The float is hollow, and the air is 
introduced to the carburetter through it. The weight of the float 
submerges the holes through which the air enters the carburetter; 
and, as flotation takes place on the gasoline itself, the air is thus 
charged with it and ready for the burner. This type of machine will 
come nearer carburetting all the gasoline of a charge than any other. 
Its fault is that the gas is too rich and smoky. 

Another type of carburetter passes the air over a given number 
of square inches of gasoline surface per burner, as indicated by the 
construction shown in Fig. 135. Still another reduces the necessary 
superficial area of gasoline by looping burlap in the case in such a 
way as to compel the air to pass through the burlap, which is charged 
with gasoline by capillary attraction. Charcoal filling has been used 
for the same purpose. 

The shape and dimensions of the simple carburetter have been 
changed for the better by introducing pans which overflow from one 
to another when filling. The required superficial surface is obtained 
in a much smaller case in this way. There is no method, however, of 
determining the necessary relative capacity of the pans; and transfer 
cocks, pump pipes, etc., have been resorted to—first, to replenish 






PLUMBING 


139 


a pan if it becomes empty, and then to get the heavy residual product 
into one place where it can be pumped out. This form of machine 
requires a pit so that one can get down to the cocks and connections. 
A good form of pit construction is shown in Fig. 136. 

Carburetters of nearly every make are placed in the ground, 
with or without pit, and are required by insurance companies to be 
at least 30 feet from any building. In some machines, mixers are 
employed to mix part of the air directly from the pump with the gas 
after it passes through the carburetter. The proportion of air thus 
mixed can be varied at will according to the quality of light desired. 
This feature is intended to make the use of ordinary coal-burners 
possible. The prices of machines constructed of the same material 
are a fair gauge of their relative merit. 







BOTTOM OF TRENCH OF CONCRETE AND BRICK-LINED SEWER 

The entire work is covered with an earth embankment after completion. Metropolitan Water and Sewerage System of Boston. Mass. 

























PLUMBING 

PART III 

METHODS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL 

The fact that no specific gas peculiar to sewers and drains is 
known, and that the analysis of air taken from the interior of soil pipes 
has sometimes shown fewer germs capable of producing specific dis¬ 
eases than air taken from the room in which the pipes were situated, 
affords no reason for abating the effort to exclude drain, sewer, and 
soil-pipe air from buildings. In cities, the public sewers offer fixed 
conditions of sewage disposal; but where no public sewer is constructed, 
there are still a number of ways to handle the sewage from house 
sewers', and there are but few locations that do not offer at least one 
chance of settling the question in an unobjectionable manner. 

For house disposal, irrigation, the dry-and-wet well plan, streams, 
and dry ravines are among the means most likely to be available. 
The septic tank, too, while its principles have as yet been employed 
only to a limited extent for individual houses, bids fair to come into 
extended use in the future. 

The first cost of the garden irrigation plan is greater, usually, 
than that of other methods; but it has the merit of fertilizing the soil 
to some extent as a return for the expenditure. The solid matter 
must be carted away from time to time. The plan consists essentially 
of buried lines of irrigating pipe ramifying through the ground to be 
improved, and a specially formed receiver into which the house pipe 
leads and from which the irrigating lines are supplied, generally by 
intermittent siphonage. The solid matter subsides; and when a 
sufficient body has accumulated, the liquid is siphoned without 
personal attention. Fig. 137 shows the grease trap and siphon well of 
a garden irrigation plant. The chambers may be of concrete, or of 
brick laid in cement mortar and plastered. KK are iron cistern- 
covers with loose tops. The inlet pipe E from the house, has a hole 
in the crown of the bend, to prevent it from becoming air-bound when 


142 


PLUMBING 


the well is full. D is the overflow to the siphon chamber, through 
which flows a quantity of sewage corresponding to that which at any 
time enters through the pipe E. B is a hood with notched bottom, 

placed over the cen¬ 
tral weir A. The 
contents of the 
siphon well rise 
through the hood, 
and pour over into 
A from all points, 
producing suction, 
which, with the aid 
of the tortuous out- 



Fig. 137. Grease Trap and Siphon Well of a Garden 
Iirigation Plant. 


iodical siphonage 
of the liquid down 
to a level below the teeth of the hood. C is a cone of wire mesh to 
protect 7^ from becoming accidentally choked. G is an air-pipe with 



Fig. 138. Sectional Elevation and Plan of Cesspool for Septic Treatment of Sewage. 


strainer at top; 77, an air and overflow pipe combined; and 7, the 
vitrified pipe main to the irrigating lines. 

The irrigating lines are small, lmbless, perforated tile arranged 
to accomplish, by means of tight headers properly inclined, as nearly 























































































































PLUMBING 


143 


as possible an even distribution of the liquid. This device—if properly 
constructed, and if placed at a suitable distance from the house, in 
such a position that it cannot contaminate a well or other source of 
water supply—can be used with comparative safety. Special care 
should be taken in its construction; and when in use, it should be 
regularly cleaned. 


The slope of the ground necessary for the discharge of a siphon, 
generally meets the requirements of a better process—namely, the 
Septic. A form of cesspool, shown in Fig. 138, is intended for this 
class of installation. It consists of two brick chambers, the larger 
having a clean-out opening in 
the top, provided with a tight 
cover. A vent pipe is carried from 
the top to such a height that all 
gases are discharged at an eleva¬ 
tion sufficient to prevent nui¬ 
sance from their presence. The 
smaller chamber is connected 
with the first by means of east- 
iron soil-pipe, and is arranged 
to feed the lengths of porous 
tile radiating from the bottom, as 
shown in the plan view. The sec¬ 
ond chamber thus acts in lieu of 
the “tight headers” mentioned in 
connection with Fig. 137. The 
house drain connects with, the 
larger chamber, which fills to the 
level of the overflow; then the 
liquid portion of the sewage 
drains over into chamber No. 2, 



Pig. 139. Sectional Elevation of 
Dry-and-Wet Well. 

and is absorbed through the 


porous tile branches. The solids, which are small in amount in a 
properly designed chamber, remain in No. 1, and may require 
removal from time to time. Unusual dilution and other favoring 
causes often produce more or less septic action in the second 
chamber. The intercepting trap may or may not be placed in the 
house drain. 

Some natural, dry ravines are so formed and located with refer- 
































































144 


PLUMBING 


ence to the general surroundings as to offer little objection to their 
use as points of discharge for the house drain. 

Streams should not be employed, unless they are of considerable 
size and have a constant flow, so as to accomplish sufficient dilution, 
unfailing throughout the season. 

Near the urban limits, acreage available for disposal areas is 
small, and the land features and general environment so unfavorable 
that a dry well may sometimes be resorted to. This, in its best form— 
like the irrigation receiver—separates the solid from the liquid matter, 
and discharges the overflow of liquid, without much attention, into a 
stratum of ground in which certain bacterial processes take place. 
Fig. 139 is an elevation of a dry-and-wet well, which, when properly 
designed and installed, should operate through a long period without 
attention. 

When the dry-well feature is added to an old vault, it is first 
necessary to connect the house sewer with the vault. The dry well 
consists of a 10 or 12-inch tile pipe extending to the gravel stratum 
and filled with broken rock. This pipe is made water-tight, both 
where it passes through the bottom of the vault, and within the vault 
as well. A heavy, grayish scum collects on the surface of the sewage, 
and indicates septic action. The liquid constantly flows over into 
the dry well, and some solid matter settles to the bottom. 

The mention of this and other types of cesspools is not to be taken 
as a recommendation for their use, except when compulsory and after 
careful consideration given to their design. A sparsely settled con¬ 
dition of a locality reduces the harm possible from them; but under 
the most favorable conditions there is always danger of producing 
permanent pollution of the soil. 

Marshes are sometimes unwisely used as a discharge place for 
the drain pipe. Isolated low spots covered with loosely piled broken 
rock to prevent the rooting of plants and to favor bacterial action, 
have given good service, evaporation and oxidation taking care of the 
discharge for long periods. 

The septic treatment of sewage may be considered a biological 
rather than a chemical process, as its success is dependent upon pre¬ 
senting conditions which favor the rapid growth of certain bacteria. 
In the complete reduction of sewage by the septic method, bringing 
it to a harmless state in the form of nitrates which plant life can 





PLUMBING 


145 


assimilate, two forms of bacteria are employed —anaerobic and aerobic. 
Air and light retard the multiplication of the first of these- The 
second require oxygen, and multiply rapidly in the open air. The 
tank or receiver proper, is a sort of catch-basin, made in form to favor 
the requirements for the propagation of anaerobic bacteria, which 
reduce the sewage to simple compounds. The tank, it appears, 
should hold the output of about one day’s use of the fixtures dis¬ 
charging into it. Light and air should be excluded. Warmth to a 
degree is essential. Such heat as is common to a pit in the earth, 
closed at the top, with no unnecessary exposure, together with the heat 
of waste water and that generated by the action taking place in the 
sewage itself, is sufficient to favor the process in winter weather of 
quite severe climates. A temperature of 54° F. has been stated to 
be the minimum permissible in this tank, for little or no septic action 
can take place at lower temperatures. The waste water of baths and 
lavatories is not turned into the septic tank merely for the heat it 
brings, but also to secure dilution of the excrement and matter from 
other sources, which not infrequently carry too little water to favor 
the best interests of the process. Both the inlet and the outlet of the 
tank should be arranged to be below the surface of the contents when 
the tank is full, so that the scum which generally forms on the surface 
will not be disturbed by entry or exit of matter. This scum, resem¬ 
bling wet ashes, helps to retain the heat, and excludes light and air 
from the mass—all favoring the accomplishment of the purpose. The 
scum may be from a few inches to 15 or 20 inches in thickness, accord¬ 
ing to conditions and nature of the plant. 

The contents leaving this initial receptacle, having therein been 
reduced from a complex nature to one of simpler chemical compounds, 
principally nitrites, the completion of the reduction process and the 
change from nitrites to nitrates are brought about by exposure of the 
matter to light and air, giving the aerobic micro-organisms a chance 
to develop. This would be accomplished by simply discharging 
directly into a stream; but a more rapid action is obtained by inter¬ 
posing an open, shallow bed of broken stone or slag for the liquid to 
flow through first, so as to break up and bring into contact with the air 
as large an amount of surface as possible before piping to stream or 
elsewhere. In this way a more complete reduction is certain before 
the matter reaches any final source of disposal. 








146 


PLUMBING 


The bacteria necessary to the process are always present in 
abundance in fresh sewage, and nothing more than the time necessary 
to their cultivation is required in the simplest provision for operation. 
The resulting product is described as mainly consisting of a harm¬ 
less, colorless, odorless, stable liquid. In this process, admission 
of air to the tank, or lack of sufficient heat or dilution, may result in a 
putrescent state of the matter, such as is occasionally found in a 
common cesspool. 

As already noted, the septic process is not yet widely used, except 

for town sewage, where it is rapidly gaining in favor. Here elaborate 

methods are adopted to favor the aerobic or oxidizing end of the 

operation, mostly through filters of special design, all aiming to secure 

absolute stability and harmlessness of the final discharge from the 

«/ 

sewage disposal plant. 

Fig. 140 illustrates a simple arrangement for the septic treatment 
of sewage. A is the septic tank proper, where the anaerobic action 



Fig. 140. Simple Tank Arrangement for Septic Treatment of Sewage. 


takes place; and B is the second receptacle, with a bed of broken stone 
designed to break up the discharge from A in a way to favor aerobic 
action. C is the inlet, and D the outlet. Wider experience will 
doubtless develop much data bearing on the form of apparatus and the 
latitude of conditions under which particular grades of waste can be 
most successfully treated. Numberless variations from the arrange¬ 
ments shown are being employed, according to size of plant and com¬ 
position of waste product. From ten to thirty days are required for 
the development of the bacteria and their action. 

Where the level of the outfall of a sewer for either an individual 
house or a community is below the level into which the final discharge 
must be made, it is necessary to use a sewage lift or pump to raise the 
matter to a point where gravitation will again take care of the flow. 
These lift pumps may be had suitable for either large or small instal¬ 
lations. For sub-cellars or other points below the level of the main 






















































PLUMBING 


147 


drain, sin face drainage may be assembled m a well like that shown 
in k ig. 141; and from there, by means of a cellar drainer operated by 
steam or water, it may be automatically lifted and discharged into 
the drain, as shown by the engraving. The well is composed of metal 
rings about 30 inches in diameter, bolted together. One section is 
provided with pipe hubs for entry of the surface drain-pipes, and the 
cap is arranged with manhole opening and cover. If the drain into 
which the water is discharged is subject to reverse currents from 
tide or flood water, than a trap, with tide-water valve, arranged as 



WATER INLET 


STLAM INLET 


Surface drain 

AGE INLET 







/ 




6 


main SEWER 
FLOOR LINE 


SURFACE DRAIN 
AGE INLET 




Fig. 141. Well for Collecting Surface Drainage from Sub-Cellars, etc., 
below Main Drain, into which it is Subsequently 
Lifted and Discharged. 


shown between B and C, is used; otherwise, a simple trapped con¬ 
nection, as indicated by pipe A, leads the discharge water into the 
sewer, and the work shown from B to C is omitted. 

A sanitary sewerage system cannot be installed until a public 
water supply has been provided. It is needed as soon as that is 
accomplished; for, while the wells may then be abandoned, the volume 
of waste water is greatly increased by the more copious water supply. 


Its foulness is also much increased through the introduction of water- 
closets. Without sewers and with a public water supply, cesspools 



















































































148 


PLUMBING 


must be used; and with these begins a continuous pollution of the soil 
much more serious than that which commonly results from vaults and 
the surface disposal of slops. 

Among the data which should first be obtained in laying out a 
sewer system, are: 

1. The area to he served, with its topography and the general 
character oj the soil. A contour map of the whole town or city, show¬ 
ing the location of the various streets, streams, ponds, or lakes, and 
contour lines for each 5 feet or so of change in elevation, is necessary 
for the best results. The general character of the soil can usually be 
ascertained by observation and inquiry among residents or builders 
who have dug wells or cellars, or who have observed work of this kind 
being done. The kind of soil is important, as affecting the cost of 
trenching, as well as its wetness or dryness; and this, together with 
a determination of the ground-water level, will be useful in showing 
the extent of under-draining necessary. 

2. Whether the separate or the combined system oj sewerage, or a 
compromise between the two, is to be adopted. These points will depend 
almost wholly upon local conditions. The size and cost of com¬ 
bined sewers is much greater than the separate system, since the sur¬ 
face drainage in times of heavy rainfall is many times as great as the 
flow of sanitary sewage. In older towns and cities, it sometimes 
happens that drains for removing the surface water are already pro¬ 
vided ; and in this case it is necessary only to put in the sanitary sewers; 
or again, the latter may be provided, leaving the matter of surface 
drainage for future consideration. 

If the sewage must be purified, the combined system is out of 
the question, for the expense of treating the full flow in times of maxi¬ 
mum rainfall would be enormous. Sometimes more or less limited 
areas of a town may require the combined system, while the separate 
system is best adapted for the remainder; and, again, it may be neces¬ 
sary to take only the roof water into the sewers. As already stated, 
local conditions and relative cost are the principal factors in deciding 
between the separate and combined systems. 

3. Whether subsoil drainage shall be provided. In most cases 
this also will depend upon local conditions. It is always an advantage 
to lower the ground-water level in places where it is sufficiently high 
to make the ground wet at or near the surface during a large part of 






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PLUMBING 


140 


the year. Tn addition to rendering the soil dry around and beneath 
cellars, the laying of underdrains is of such aid in sewer construction 
as to warrant their introduction for this purpose alone. This is the 
case where the trenches are so wet as to render the making* and setting 

O o 

of cement joints difficult. The aim in all good sewer work is to reduce 
the infiltration of ground water into the pipes to the smallest amount; 


but in very wet soil, tight joints can be made only with difficulty, and 
never with absolute certainty. Cases have been known where fully 
one-half the total volume of sewage consisted of ground water which 
had worked in through the joints. 

4. The best means for the final disposal of the sewage. Until 
recently it was the custom to turn sewage into the nearest river or lake 
where it could be discharged with the least expense. The principal 
point to be observed in the disposal of sewage is that no public water 
supply shall be endangered. At the present time, no definite knowl¬ 
edge is at hand regarding the exact length of time that disease germs 
from the human system will live in water. The Massachusetts 
Legislature at one time said that no sewer should discharge into a 
stream within 20 miles of any point where it is used for public water 
supply; but decisions on this point are now left la'rgely in the hands 
of the State Board of Health. There may be cases where sewage 
disposal seems to claim preference to water supply in the use of a 
stream; but each case must be decided on its own merits. Knowing 
the amount of water, the prevailing conditions of flow, and the prob¬ 
able quantity and character of the sewage, it is generally easy to 
determine whether all of the crude sewage of a city can safely be 
discharged into the body of water in question. Averages in this case 
should never be used; the water available during a hot and dry 
summer, when the stream or lake is at its lowest and its banks and bed 
are exposed to the sun, is what must be considered. 

Where sewage is discharged into large bodies of water—either 
lakes or the ocean—it is generally necessary to make a careful study of 
the prevailing currents, to determine the most available point of dis¬ 
charge, in order to prevent the sewage becoming stagnant in bays, 
or the washing ashore of the lighter portions. Such studies are 
commonly made with floats, which indicate the direction of the 
existing currents. 

5. Population, water consumption, and volume of sewage for 







150 


PLUMBING 


which provision should be made, together with the rainfall data if 
surface drainage is to be installed. The basis for population studies 
is best taken from the Census reports, extending back many years. 
By means of these the probable growth can be estimated for a period 
of from thirty to fifty years. In small and rapidly growing towns, 
it must be remembered that the rate of increase is generally less as 
the population becomes greater. 

It is desirable to design a sewerage system large enough to serve 
for a number of years, twenty or thirty perhaps, although some parts 
of the work, such as pumping or purification works, may be made 
smaller and increased in size as needed. 

The pipe system should be large enough at the start to serve each 
street and district for a long period, as the advantages to be derived 
from the use of the city sewers are so great that all houses are almost 
certain to be connected with them sooner or later. It is often neces¬ 
sary to divide a city into districts, in making estimates of the probable 
growth in population. Thus the residential sections occupied by the 
wealthiest classes will consist of a comparatively small population per 
acre, due to the large size of the lots. The population will grow more 
dense in the sections occupied by the less wealthy, the well-to-do, and, 
finally, the tenement sections. In manufacturing districts the amount 
of sewage will vary somewhat, depending upon the lines of industry 
carried on. 

The total water consumption depends mainly upon the popula¬ 
tion, but no fixed rule can be laid down for determining it beforehand. 
It is never safe to allow less than 60 gallons per day per capita as the 
average water consumption of a town, if most of the people patronize 
the public water supply. In general it is safer to allow 100 gallons. 

The total daily flow of sewage is not evenly distributed through 
the 24 hours. The actual amount varies widely during different 
hours of the day. In most towns there should be little if any sewage, 
if the pipes are tight enough to prevent inward leakage, between about 
10 o’clock in the evening and 4 o’clock in the morning. From two- 
thirds to three-fourths of the daily flow usually occurs in from 9 to 
12 hours, vary big in different communities. This is not of importance 
in designing the pipe system, but only affects the disposal. 

Rainfall data are usually hard to obtain, except in cities and 
larger towns. In cases of this kind, the data from neighboring towns 




PLUMBING 


151 


or cities may be used, if available. Monthly or weekly totals are of 
little value, as it is necessary to provide for the heaviest rains, as 
a severe shower of 15 minutes may cause more inconvenience and 
damage, if the sewers are not sufficiently large, than a steady rain 
extending over a day or two. A maximum rate of 1 inch per hour 
will usually cover all ordinary conditions. The proportion which 
will reach the sewers during a given time will depend upon local con¬ 
ditions, such as the slope of the land; whether its surface is covered 
with houses and paved streets, cultivated fields, or forests, etc. 

6. Extent and cost of the proposed system. This is a matter 
largely dependent upon the local treasury, or the willingness of the 
people to pay general taxes or a special assessment for the benefits to 
be derived. 


SEWER DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 

The first step is to lay out the pipe or conduit system. For this, 
the topographical map already mentioned will be found useful. This, 
however, should be supplemented by a profile of all the streets in 
which sewers are to be laid, in order to determine the proper grades. 
In laying out the pipe lines, special diagrams and tables which have 
been prepared for this purpose may be used. In the separate system, 
it is generally best to use 12-inch pipe as the smallest size, to lessen the 
risk of stoppage, although 8 to 10-inch pipe is ample for the volume 
of sanitary sewage from an ordinary residence street of medium length. 
Pipe sewers are generally made of vitrified clay, with a salt-glazed 
surface. Cement pipe is also used in some cities. The size of pipe 
sewers is limited to 30 inches in diameter, owing to the difficulty and 
expense of making the larger pipe, and the comparative ease of laying 
brick sewers of any size from 24 or 30 inches up. In very wet ground, 
cast-iron pipe with lead joints is used, to prevent inward leakage or 
settling of the pipe. 

The pipes should be laid to grade with great care, and a good 
alignment should be secured. Holes should be dug for the bells of the 
pipe, so that they will have solid bearings their entire length. If rock 
is encountered in trenching, it will be necessary to provide a bed for the 
pipe which will not be washed into fissures by the stream of subsoil 
water which is likely to follow the sewer when the ground is saturated. 




152 


PLUMBING 


Underdrains. Where sewers are in wet sand or gravel, under- 
drains may he laid beneath or alongside the sewer. These are usually 
made of ordinary agricultural tiles, 3 inches or upward in diameter. 
They have no joints, being simply hollow cylinders, and are laid with 
their ends a fraction of an inch apart, wrapped with cheap muslin 
cloth to keep out the dirt until the matter in the trench becomes 
thoroughly packed about them. These drains may empty into the 
nearest stream, provided it is not used for a public water supply. 

Manholes. These should be placed at all changes of grade, and 
at all junctions between streets. They are built of brick, and afford 
access to the sewer for inspection; in addition to this, they are some¬ 
times used for flushing. They are provided with iron covers, which 
in many cases are pierced with holes for ventilation. 

Sewer Grades. The grades of sewers should, where possible, 
be sufficient to give them a self-cleaning velocity. Practical experi¬ 
ments show that sewers of the usual sections will remain clear with 
the following minimum grades: Separate house connections, 2 per 
cent (2-foot fall in each 100 feet of length); small street sewers, 1 per 
cent; main sewers, 0.7 per cent. These grades may be reduced 
slightly for sewers carrying only rain or quite pure water. 

The following formula may be used for computing the minimum 
grade for a sewer of clear diameter equal to d inches, and either 
circular or oval in section: 

Minimum grade, per cent = •=-= -—_• 

5a + 50 

Flushing Devices. Where very low grades are unavoidable, 
and at the head of branch sewers, where the volume of flow is small, 
flushing may be used with advantage. In some cases water is turned 
into the sewer through a manhole, from some pond or stream or from 
the public waterworks system. Generally, however, the water is 
allowed to accumulate before being discharged, by closing up the 
lower side of the manhole until the water partially fills it, and then 
suddenly releasing it and allowing the water to rush through the pipe. 
Instead of using clear water from outside for this purpose, it may be 
sufficient at some points on the system simply to back up the sewage, 
by closing the manhole outlet, thus flushing the sewer with the sewage 
itself. 







PLUMBING 


153 


Where frequent and regular flushing is required, automatic devices 
are often used. These usually operate by means of a self-discharg¬ 
ing siphon, although there are other devices operated by means of 
the weight of a tank which fills and empties at regular intervals. 

House Connections. Provision for house connections should 
be made when the sewers are laid, in order to avoid breaking up the 
streets after the sewers are in use. Y-branches should be put in at 
frequent intervals, say from 25 feet upwards, according to the charac¬ 
ter of the street. When the sewer main is deep down, quarter- 
bends are sometimes provided; and the house-connection pipe is car¬ 
ried vertically upwards to within a few feet of the surface, to avoid 
deep digging when connections are made. 

Where house connections are made with the main, or where two 
sewers join, the direction of the flow should be kept as nearly the same 
as possible, and the entering sewer should be at a little higher level, 
in order to increase the velocity of the inflowing sewage. 

Depth of Sewers below Surface. No general rule can be followed 
in this matter, except to place the sewers low enough to secure a 
proper grade for the house connections which are to be made with 
them. They must be kept below a point where there would be trouble 
from freezing; but the natural depth is sufficient to prevent this in 
most cases. 

Ventilation of Sewers. There is more or less difference of opinion 
in regard to the proper method of ventilating sewer mains. Ventila¬ 
tion through soil-pipe foul-air outlets carried above the roof-level, 
with the aid of street manhole gratings, constitutes the usual procedure, 
though not entirely satisfactory. If air inlets and outlets were placed 
on the main sewers at intervals of 300 feet or so, the accumulation of 
air-pressures which now obtains would be prevented. The omission 
of all intercepting traps would result in the uniform ventilation of the 
public sewers through the various house pipes, and, in the opinion 
of many students of the subject, is highly desirable. 

The Combined System. The principal differences between the 
combined and the separate system lie in the greater size of conduits 
in the combined system, and the admission of surface water. Com¬ 
bined sewers are generally of brick, stone, or concrete, or a combina¬ 
tion of these materials, instead of vitrified pipe. Another difference 
is the provision for storm overflows, by means of which the main sewers, 




154 


PLUMBING 


when overcharged in times of heavy rainfall, can empty a part of 
their contents into a nearby stream. At such times the sewage is 
diluted by the rain-water, while the stream which receives the overflow 
is also swollen. 

Size, Shape, and Material. The actual size of the sewer, and 
also to a large extent its shape and the material of which it is 
constructed, depend upon local conditions. Where the depth of flow 
varies greatly, it is desirable to give the sewer a cross-section to suit all 
flows as fully as possible. 

The best form of section to meet these requirements is that of an 
egg with its smaller end placed downward. With this form the 
greatest depth and velocity of flow are secured for the smallest amount 
of sewage, thus reducing the tendency to deposits and stoppages. 
Where sewers have a flow more nearly constant and equal to their 
full capacity, the form may be changed more nearly to that of an ellipse. 

For the larger sewers, brick is the most common material, both 
because of its low cost and the ease with which any form of conduit is 
constructed. Stone is sometimes used on steep grades, especially 
where there is much sand in suspension, which would tend to wear 
away brick walls. Concrete is used where leakage may be expected 
or where the material is liable to movement, but is more commonly 
used as a foundation for brick construction. 

A catch-basin is generally placed at each street corner, and pro¬ 
vided with a grated opening for giving the surface water access to a 
chamber or basin beneath the sidewalk, from which a pipe leads to 
the sewer. Catch-basins may be provided with water traps to prevent 
the sewer air from reaching the street; but traps are uncertain in 
their action, as they are likely to become unsealed through evaporation 
in dry weather. To prevent the carrying of sand and dirt into the 
sewers, catch-basins should be provided with silt chambers of con¬ 
siderable depth, with overflow pipes leading to the sewer. The 
heavy matter which falls to the bottom of these chambers may be 
removed by buckets and carted away at proper intervals. 

Storm Overflows. The main point to be considered in the con¬ 
struction of storm overflows is to ensure a discharge into another 
conduit when the water reaches a certain elevation in the main sewer. 
This may be carried out in different ways, depending upon the avail¬ 
able points for overflow. 




PLUMBING 


155 


Pumping Stations. The greater part of the sewerage systems 
in the United States operate wholly by gravity; but in some cases it 
is necessary to pump a part or the whole of the sewage of a city to a 
higher level. In general the sewage should be screened before it 
reaches the pumps. 

Where pumping is necessary, receiving or storage chambers are 
sometimes used to equalize the work required of the pumps, thus 
making it possible to shut down the plant at night. Such reservoirs 
should be covered, unless in very isolated localities. The force main 
or discharge pipe from the pumps is usually short, and is generally 
of cast iron put together in a manner similar to that used for water- 
supply systems. 

Tidal Chambers. Where sewage is discharged into tide water, 
it is often necessary to provide storage or tidal chambers, so that the 
sewage may be discharged only at ebb tides. These are constructed 
similar to other reservoirs, except that they must have ample discharge 
gates, so that they can be emptied in a short time. They are some¬ 
times made to work automatically by the action of the tide. 

SEWAGE PURIFICATION 

Before taking up this subject in detail, it will be well to consider 
what sewage is, from a chemical standpoint. 

When fresh, sewage appears at the mouth of an outlet sewer as a 
milky-looking liquid with some large particles of matter in suspension, 
such as orange peels, rags, paper, and various other articles not easily 
broken up. It often has a faint, musty odor, and in general appear¬ 
ance is similar to the suds-water from a family laundiy. Ncaily all 
of the sewage is water, the total amount of solid matter not being more 
than 2 parts in 1,000, of which half may be organic matter. It is 
this 1 part in 1,000 which should be removed, or so changed m char¬ 
acter as to render it harmless. 

The systems of purification now in most common use are the 
septic treatment already described, chemical precipitation, and the 
land treatment. Mechanical straining, sedimentation, and chemical 
precipitation are largely removal processes; while land treatment, 
by the slow process of infiltration or irrigation, changes the decaying 
organic matter into stable mineral compounds. 



156 


PLUMBING 


Sedimentation. This is effected by allowing the suspended 
matter to settle in tanks. The partially clarified liquid is then drawn 
off, leaving the solid matter, called sludge , at the bottom for later 
disposal. This system requires a good deal of time and large settling- 
tanks, and until recently has been considered suitable only for small 
quantities of sewage. 

Mechanical Straining. This is accomplished in different ways, 
with varying degrees of success. Wire screens or filters of various 
materials may be employed. Straining of itself is of little value except 
as a step to further purification. Beds of coke from six to eight inches 
in depth are often used with good results. 

Chemical Precipitation. Sedimentation alone removes only 
such suspended matter as will sink by its'own weight during the com¬ 
paratively short time which can be allowed for the process. By adding 
certain substances, chemical action is set up, which greatly increases 
the rapidity with which precipitation takes place. Some of the organic 
substances are brought together by the formation of new compounds; 
and, as they fall in flaky masses, they carry with them other suspended 
matter. 

A great number and variety of chemicals have been employed for 
this purpose; but those which experience has shown to be most 
useful are lime, sulphate of alumina, and some of the salts of iron. 
The best chemical to use in any given case depends upon the character 
of the sewage, and on relative cost in the particular locality where it 
is to be used. Lime is cheap, but the large quantity required greatly 
increases the amount of sludge. Sulphate of alumina is more expen¬ 
sive, but it is often used to advantage in connection with lime. Where 
an acid sewage is to be treated, lime alone should be used. 

The chemicals should be added to the sewage, and thoroughly 
mixed, before it reaches the settling-tank; this may be effected by the 
use of projections or baffling-plates placed in the conduits leading 
to the tank. The best results are obtained by means of long, narrow 
tanks; and they should be operated on the continuous rather than the 
intermittent plan. The width of the tank should be about one-fourth 
its length. In the continuous method, the sewage is constantly flowing 
into one part of the tank and discharging from another. In the 
intermittent system, a tank is filled and then the flow is turned into 
another, allowing the sewage in the first tank to come to rest. In the 



PLUMBING 


157 


continuous plan, the sewage generally flows through a set of tanks 
without interruption until one of the compartments needs cleaning. 
The clear portion is drawn off from the top, the sludge is then removed, 
and the tank thoroughly disinfected before being put in use again. 

The satisfactory disposal of the sludge is a somewhat difficult 
problem. The most common method is to press it into cakes, which 
greatly reduces its bulk and makes it more easily handled. These 
are sometimes burned, but are more often used for fertilizing purposes. 
In some cases, peat or some other absorbent is mixed with the sludge, 
and the whole mass removed in bulk. In other instances, the sludge 
is run out on the surface of coarse gravel beds, and reduced by draining 
and drying. In wet weather, little drying takes place; and during 
the cold months, the sludge accumulates in considerable quantities. 
This process also requires much manual labor, and in many cases 
suitable land is not available for the purpose. The required capacity 
of the settling-tanks is the principal item in determining the cost of 
installing precipitation works. 

In the treatment of house sewage, provision must be made for 
about -12 the total daily flow; and in addition to this, allowance 
must be made for throwing out a portion of the tanks for cleaning and 
repairs. In general, the tank capacity should not be much less than 
J the total daily flow. 

In the combined system, it is impossible to provide tanks for the 
total amount; and the excess due to storm water must discharge into 
natural watercourses or pass by the works without treatment. 

Broad Irrigation or Sewage Farming. Where sewage is applied 
to the surface of the ground upon which crops are raised, the process 
is called sewage farming. This varies but little from ordinary irriga¬ 
tion, where clean water is used instead of sewage. The land employed 
for this purpose should have a rather light and porous soil, and the 
crops should be such as require a large amount of moisture. The 
application of from 5,000 to 10,000 gallons of sewage per day per 
acre is considered a liberal allowance. On the basis of 100 gallons of 
sewage per head of population, this would mean that one acre would 
care for a population of from 50 to 100 people. 

Sub-Surface Irrigation. This system is employed, as already 
described, only upon a small scale, and chiefly for private dwellings, 
public institutions, and small communities where for any reason 





158 


PLUMBING 


surface disposal would be objectionable. The sewage is distributed 
through agricultural drain tiles laid with open joints and placed only 
a few inches below the surface. Provision should be made for chang¬ 
ing the disposal area as often as the soil may require, by turning the 
sewage into other subdivisions of the distributing pipes. 

Intermittent Filtration. This method, and the broad irriga¬ 
tion already described, are the principal purification processes—not 
considering the septic method—in use on a large scale, which can 
remove practically all the organic matter from sewage without being 
supplemented by some other method. The process is a simple one, 
and consists in running the sewage out through distributing pipes on 
beds of sand 4 or 5 feet in thickness, with a system of pipes or drains 
below for collecting the purified liquid. In operation, the sewage 
is turned first on one bed and then on another, thus allowing an 
opportunity for the liquid portion to filter through. As the surface 
becomes clogged, it is raked over, or the sludge may be scraped off 
together with a thin layer of sand. The best filtering material con¬ 
sists of a clean, sharp sand with grains of uniform size, such that the 
free space between them will equal about one-third the total volume. 
When the sewage is admitted to the sand, only a part of the air is driven 
out, so that there is a store of oxygen left, upon which the bacteria 
may draw. This is not a mere process of straining, but the formation 
of new compounds by the action of the oxygen in the air, thus changing 
the organic matter into inorganic. Much depends upon the size 
and quality of the sand used. 

The work done by a filter is largely determined by the finer 
particles of sand, and that used should be of fairly uniform quality, and 
the coarser and finer particles should be well sized. The area and 
volume of sand or gravel required are so large that the transportation 
of material any great distance is out of the question. Usually the 
beds are constructed on natural deposits, the top soil or loam being 
removed. The sewage should be brought into the beds so as to dis¬ 
turb their surface as little as possible, and should be distributed 
evenly over the whole bed. 

The underdrains should not be placed more than 50 feet apart, 
usually much less, and should be provided with manholes at the 
junctions of the pipes. Before admitting the sewage to the beds, it is 
usually best to screen it sufficiently to take out paper, rags, and other 





PLUMBING 


159 


floating matter. The size and slope of each bed should be such as to 
permit an even distribution of sewage over its surface. 

Where the filtration area is small, it must be divided so as to 
permit of intermittent operation; that is, if a bed is to be in use and 
at rest for equal periods, then two or more beds will be necessary, 
the number depending on the relative periods of use and rest. Some 
additional area should also be provided for emergency, or for use 
while the beds are being scraped. If a large area is laid out, so that 
the size of the beds is limited only by convenience in use, then an 
acre may be taken as a good size. 

The degree of purification depends upon various circumstances; 
but with the best material, practically all of the organic matter can be 
removed from sewage by intermittent filtration, at a rate of about 
100,000 gallons per day. 

There is often much opposition to sewage purification by those 
living'or owning property near the plants; but experience has shown 
that well-conducted plants are inoffensive, both within and without 
their enclosures. The employees about such works are as healthy 
as similar classes of men in other occupations. The crops raised on 
sewage farms are as healthful as those of the same kind raised else¬ 
where ; and meat and milk from sewage farms are usually as good as 
when produced under other conditions. Good design and con¬ 
struction, followed by proper methods of operation, are all that are 
needed to make sewage purification a success. No one system can 
be said to be the best for all localities. The special problems of each 
case must be met and solved by a selection from among the several 
systems and combinations of systems, and parts chosen that are best 
adapted to the conditions at hand. 

Where sewerage and storm water are carried in one system of 
pipes or conduits, rain-water leaders may ventilate the drain more or 
less. Trapping a leader drain is often unnecessary, if it opens above 
the highest windows. Porch and veranda roof drains having windows 
above them may require trapping, but it should be done in a way to 
insure the maintenance of the water-seal of the trap. As these drains 
are small, merely connecting to the main drain inside (on the house 
side), the main intercepting trap may be deemed sufficient unless 
closure by hoar frost is likely. Other pipes so connected being higher, 
the chances are that air will enter the open end to supply a current up 



160 


PLUMBING 


the taller lines; and if this is not the case, dilution of what air may be 
thus brought into the open will render its danger of little consequence. 
Care must be taken in the design of a system of plumbing, that leader 
traps are not omitted where such omission would result in the weak¬ 
ening of the flow of air through the principal vent pipes. 

THE HOUSE DRAINAGE SYSTEM 

Assuming that the method of disposing of sewage and drainage 
is decided upon, the problem of how to pipe the house safely may be 
considered as presenting about the same conditions, whether the house 
drain enters a branch from the city sewer or terminates in some other 
means of disposal. 

Granted that sew T er air is a thing to be guarded against, the safest 
plan is to pursue that course which offers the surest means of keeping 
the house free of it. We know that through contamination of water 
supply by filtration from vaults, etc., the human system may suffer 
pollution, and may develop specific disease of a serious, even fatal 
nature. It is no less certain that polluted air will affect the lungs 
similarly, according to the nature of the pollution. On this ground, 
notwithstanding any argument to the contrary, we should proceed to 
exclude sewer air entirely, and to make the air of the house drain-pipes 
as pure as possible. 

It.must be remembered that where a whole system of plumbing is 
designed with certain ends in view, and all the details worked out 
accordingly, a house system may be satisfactory which under slight 
disturbance of conditions would be abominable. Therefore no 
departure from a certain means of positively accomplishing a desired 
result should be accepted without unanimous endorsement of those 
in position to know what is safe. People, however, have been at all 
times too ready to accept any plan that promised the immediate 
saving of a dollar. Certain plumbing accessories may be admirably 
adapted to use in one place, yet wholly unfit for service in another; 
but the makers cannot be expected to discriminate; they are prej¬ 
udiced, and are not on the ground. * It is the business of the public, 
through architects and plumbers, to select suitable means to the end. 

With the fresh-air inlet and proper installation throughout the 
building, an intercepting trap is likely to exclude sewer air from the 





PLUMBING 


161 


house, and to keep the drains in the house filled with fresh air from the 
open atmosphere (see page 163). With these conditions, a possible 
leaky joint or defective trap can permit only comparatively pure air 

to enter from the 
pipe. The inter¬ 
cepting trap being 
in the main line, 
all water from the 
house passes 
through it, insuring 
the water seal being 
maintained. The 
foul-air outlet ven¬ 
tilates the sewer 
much as would the 



Fig. 142. Intercepting Trap in Cellar. 


house lines if the trap were omitted, because in it there 
is never any contrary rush of air or water, both of which would 
check or reverse the current, and the latter of which reduces the 
area of the pipe, even though it be assumed that no further inter¬ 
ference occurs through discharge from fixtures. The trap may be 
in the yard or within the house walls, according to circumstances. 
Fig. 142 shows an intercepting 
trap in the cellar,with its fresh-air 
inlet terminating above the 
snow-level. Many jobs were 
formerly piped in a way per¬ 
mitting soil air to puff out 
through the inlet. Fig. 143 
shows a plan that has been 
resorted to with the idea of car¬ 
rying such discharges to a safe 
height without 'interfering with 
the normal action of the fresh- 
air inlet. It is merely a rising 
line with an inverted funnel over 
the open end of the inlet, which 

incidentally protects the air-pipe from lodgment of foreign 
matter. The foul-air outlet should not terminate near a window or 



Fig. 143. Simple Device for Carrying Away 
to a Safe Height Soil Air that may be 
Puffed from Fresh-Air Inlet. 






























































1G2 


PLUMBING 



Fig. 144. Foul-Air Outlet from Intercept 
ing Trap Carried to Roof. 


door, nor be too close to the fresh-air inlet opening. It should be 
located so that it will be free of chance obstruction, and above the 
level of winter ice and snow, even though it has to be piped to above 
the roof-level as indicated in Fig. 144, in which A is a cone strainer 

with solid top, and T the main inter¬ 
cepting trap. The direct line of 
foul-air pipe to roof, and the dis¬ 
tance between the trap and fresh-air 
inlet grating, provide every requisite 
possible to this part of the house 
drainage, whether a loop stack, 
spoken of on another page, is em¬ 
ployed or not. 

A very good plan of terminating 
air inlet and outlet pipes in 
situations exposed to the entrance 
of obstacles, is to use a single or 
double hub return bend above snow-level, as shown in Fig. 145. In 
this way, nothing can fall in by accident; sleet from any direction 
cannot choke the openings; nor are children likely to fill the pipe. 

Fig. 146 illustrates a galvanized-wire guard placed in the hub; 
such a guard is generally used on conductor pipe, but is equally suited 
to the protection of soil and vent lines in mild climates. In Northern 
localities, the regular cast hood and 
thimble made for the purpose are 
better. The area of the openings 
of the strainer should aggregate 
at least 12 square inches for pipe 
4-inch or less; and where frost 
trouble is feared, the strainer should 
be recessed several inches so that 

the frost will have to close the open end of the pipe instead of the 
grating. 






Fig. 145. Return Bend Used to Terminate 
Air Inlet or Outlet Pipe. 


The foul-air pipe should not have abrupt offsets at any point. 
The lodgment of foreign matter therein would be possible, and the 
function of the pipe perhaps thus impaired. This pipe not only 
ventilates the sewer, but offers egress for air when storm water is 
crowding the sewer, and at other times when air-pressure would 












































PLUMBING 


163 


otherwise drive the seal of the trap toward the house, enough ulti¬ 
mately, in some cases, to lose the seal by waving out when the pressure 
is relieved. 

When a trap loses its seal by waving out, the water, in flowing 
back to its normal position, gains momentum enough to throw some 
of it over the weir, and the balance is not enough to seal the trap. 
Waving out is always caused, first, by air-pressure on 
the sewer side, and then by gravity acting as 
described. 

The operation of the fresh-air inlet depends on 
air from the open entering the house drain near the 
trap and filling the house system, passing out through 
the vent pipe above the roof. The inlet should be 
as large as the house sewer, which should never be less 
than 4 inches diameter, usually 5 inches. The same 
precautions taken against snow and ice and other 
obstructions to the foul-air outlet, are necessary to 
the fresh-air inlet. The difference in level of the 
inlet and the exit, together with the warmth of the 
building, causes an upward current through the Gaivanfzed-wire 

. . . . r . ° Guard at End 

stack. Lven the taking a more exposed course and of pipe, 
stopping at an elevation inferior to the outlet of 
the soil-pipe extension, when necessary to carry the inlet to the roof, 
will usually insure a draft. 

Objection is often raised against the fresh-air inlet, for the reason 
that puffs of foul air are thrown out when fixtures are discharged. 
This is easily possible, but mainly the result of faulty installation. 
One feature of plumbing is no more likely to be satisfactory than 
another where ignorance prevails, or when merely the simple letter 
instead of the spirit of ordinary specifications is lived up to. House 
main lines of the same size as soil-stacks (4-inch) will cause puffs of 
air from the fresh-air inlet if the horizontal run and the inlet branch 
are both short. It is well to remember that the air so puffed out is 
not sewer air 0 It is air which has just entered the house system from 
the open. And, if the fresh-air branch is of decent length, as de¬ 
scribed, and as shown in Fig. 144, the puff occasioned by the discharge 
of a fixture in an ordinary house, even in an objectionable job, may 
not equal a third of the really fresh air in the inlet branch. 




















104 


PLUMBING 


The chance of puffing under the action of fixtures can be avoided 
by a loop providing for simple revolution of air when fixtures are 
discharged. A soil-stack from the main horizontal line is carried up 
to the roof, with all connections as usual, except one. This is made 

above the highest fixture, and of the same 
size as the soil-stack, and is generally car¬ 
ried down and connected, as it should be, 
into the horizontal main several feet nearer 
the intercepting trap than where the cor¬ 
responding soil-stack leaves the main. Some 
connections are so close to the point of exit 
that the vertical stacks are made to con¬ 
stitute the whole loop, as shown in Fig. 147, 
in which cases the direct stack E from X to 

Y should invariably be a portion of the vent. 
If the connection X is made in the hori¬ 
zontal run, as before mentioned, stack F 
should be the vent, as a rule, instead of 
carrying the closet branches GG as shown. 

V and V are crown vents for the closets. 
The crown vents may in some situations be 
made into a separate smaller line leading 
into the soil-stack above the highest fixture. 

By the loop plan, air is thrust before the 
water discharged from a fixture as usual; 
also, there is the same tendency to a vacuum 
behind the water so discharged. But, in¬ 
stead of reversing the general current and 
FiS to 1 pre^n°t P Pu 1 ffs?f i Air tack drawing air from the roof to fill the void, the 
at F niet* Alr roof current in the soil-stack from the loop 

connection up, is merely checked, more or 
less; and the air already rising in the loop turns down the soil- 
stack and fills the void. Without the loop, considerable compression 
would take place in front of the water before the current in the house 
main could be reversed. With the loop, this compression is confined 
principally to the stack. The void being supplied by the loop, the 
air driven in front of the water simply passes up the loop in response 
to the call for air to fill the void behind the water. 


B 

































PLUMBING 


165 


Referring again to Fig. 147, air takes the.course offering the 
least friction; and F branching out of and into E, which is the same 
size pipe as shown at X and F, the greater part of a current of air pass¬ 
ing upward through them will travel by pipe E. For this and other 
reasons it is best to take the branch pipe F for the soil pipe. Then, 
whatever offset may be necessary to reach the closet openings will be 
washed; and the straight, vertical stack left for the vent affords no 
chance for the lodgment of rust or other obstruction. When water 
is discharged into the soil pipe at G , pipe V protects the closet trap 
from siphonage; and the tendency to form a vacuum above the water 
in the soil pipe by the piston action of the discharge water, is neutral¬ 
ized by a proportional draught of air from vent pipe E through branch 
Y. The air in the vent pipe between Y and B tends to continue its 
course to the roof, while that below the branch Y is traveling toward 
branch Y. A partial vacuum formed in soil pipe F by a discharge 
from a fixture, will be checked by a supply of air drawn from vent pipe 
E between branches X and Y. The vacuum formed behind the 
discharge water in soil pipe F increases the upward velocity of air 
in vent pipe E below Y; and the air pushed down in front of the 
discharge attempts to reverse the current below X. The increased 
velocity of the air in pipe E demands more air than was passing 
through it by natural draught. This demand is supplied by the extra 
volume which the water is pushing before it. 

As long as the discharge water is above branch A", the air simply 
revolves in the two pipes which form the loop. The air in pipe F 
travels downward before the water, and up through pipe E and 
branch Y, and down pipe F behind the water. This revolution of air 
in the loop continues until the water reaches the junction X of pipes 
E and F, without causing any perceptible “puff” at the fresh-air 
inlet opening. 

When both the connections are in vertical lines as in Fig. 147, 
after the water passes X, it will probably reverse the current of air in 
the fresh-air pipe in some instances; but, were it possible to shove out 
every atom of air in the soil pipe between the trap and point X, there 
still would not be a particle of foul air puffed out at the fresh-air 
opening, if the fresh-air pipe is of greater length than the distance 
between X and the trap. 

After the fixture water reaches X connection when A" is made in 




166 


PLUMBING 


Sheet Lead 


a larger and horizontal pipe, its interference with the air is not con¬ 
siderable. 

The object in not connecting the loop stacks as close together 
as fittings will permit, is to keep the water, as it turns into the hori¬ 
zontal main, from interfering with the entry of air to the vent. By 
giving some distance to travel before reaching the loop connection, 
the discharge of water will be well spread in the main line before 
passing it. From this point on, it may cause violent eddying of the 
air in the main, but no actual reversal of the current will take place. 

The force of air in front of water in down spouts that connect 
inside of the intercepting trap, may at times reverse the air in the 
fresh-air inlet proper. The loop pipe is an aid in this respect, too, as 

more air is at hand to cushion the 
rush of a sudden downpour; and 
the various fixture trap seals are, 
if affected at all, left much more 
stable. It would, if necessary, be 
better to have soil-pipe air expelled 
from an inlet, at times, by the action 
of storm water, than to incur the risk 
of siphonage or waving-out of fixture 
trap seals for lack of it. 

No pipe of any building should 
open to the air with less than a 
4-inch end. Small pipes should be increased to 4 inches before 
passing through the roof, as shown in Fig. 148. Pipe 4-inch and 
larger, up to 6-inch, should be increased to 6-inch. The object in all 
cases being to prevent closure by hoar frost. With 6-inch and larger 
pipe, it is doubtful if it is ever necessary to increase the size at the roof, 
excepting in buildings with cold roof space, no matter how high the 
building may be; yet some city ordinances call for an increase of one 
size regardless of size, which is manifestly foolish, as it permits increas¬ 
ing 2-inch to 2J or 3-inch on any type of job, and this is known to be 
inadequate in any but southerly latitudes. The velocity of air up 
the line is, of course, higher in tall buildings than in low ones; hence, 
in them, more moisture is carried through any given opening, and 
the theory of increasing large pipe at the exit is based on the assump¬ 
tion that smaller openings would, as a result of this excess of moisture, 



Fig. 148. Vent Pipe Increased in Size 
Before Passing through Roof, to 
Prevent Closure by Hoar Frost. 


















PLUMBING 


1G7 



J 


Roof 






be closed by frost. The great amount of warmth over large buildings 
must often, however, be considered as reducing the chances of closure 
In hoar fiost. In tropical climates, no increase of any size is necessary. 
In southerly temperate latitudes, no special attention is given precau¬ 
tions against hoar frost, beyond in¬ 
creasing the size of small vents to at 
least 4 inches in diameter. 

Flashings. There are patent 
devices for flashing around pipes, 
usually made of copper; but the 
plumber will do well to command 
the skill necessary to manipulate 
sheet lead to suit conditions as he ... 

n . Fig. 149. Pipe Flashing Capped with V- 

tinds them. In any location where Ring of Lead and Providing Egress 

j iiwv for YVarm Air from Attic. 

warm air will always be seeking an 

outlet from the attic through chance openings, the sleeve of the flash¬ 
ing may be made two to four inches larger than the outside diameter 
of the vent, and capped with an annular V-ring of lead in the manner 
shown in Fig. 149. The cap ring need only be tacked to the sleeve with 
solder. The top edge of the sleeve should be notched or some other 
provision for air-exit made, so as to insure constant changing of the 
air in the sleeve. If, on account of braces or projections necessary 
to hold the pipe rigid where it passes through the sheeting, it is 

inconvenient to let the sleeve extend 
below the sheeting as shown in the 
engraving, it may terminate at the 
roof line. If the building is a 
storage warehouse, or for any reason 
the attic will not be very warm, or 
conditions are in favor of cold air 
being drawn in through chance open¬ 
ings in winter, then the method of 

Fig. i5o. Pipe Flashing p acked with Felt flashing and packing the sleeve with 
or Mineral Wool where it is Desirable e . , ■, , 

to conserve warmth in Attic. relt or mineral wool as shown in r lg. 

150 should be employed. In all 

cases the vent and flashing must rise above the possible snow-level 

for flat roofs. The snow-level on a steep roof will be less, but drifts 

may obstruct the vent if left at the snow-level. Some latitude for 


Felt or 
/ T/1ineral Wool 



























168 


PLUMBING 


settling of the roof under the weight of snow 7 and ice, and for expan¬ 
sion of lines supported by brick piers or other supports far below 
the roof-level, must be allowed in fitting flashings. If they are too 
closely drawn or capped, trouble will soon follow. 

To develop the pattern for a tapering sleeve for a vent for a flat 
or nearly flat roof, draw, as in Fig. 151, XY at random; set off AB 
equal to the altitude of the sleeve; then AC from A, perpendicular 
to AB; then BD from B, parallel to AC; let AC equal half the diame¬ 
ter of the sleeve at the top, and BD half the bottom diameter; then cut 
CD with a line crossing XY. Lines AC, CD, DB, and BA now out¬ 
line half the elevation of the sleeve at the center. Next, with the 
intersection of XY and CD projected (X in the diagram) as a center, 

describe the arcs EF and 
GEL. On EF, set off the 
circumference of the base of 
the sleeve JK (twice BD X 
3.1416), and then indicate 
JX and KX. This devel¬ 
ops the net pattern, and it 
remains only to add the 
necessary working edges to 
get, when cut out and 
formed up, a sleeve exactly 
conforming to the shape and 
dimensions required. 

The development of a tapering sleeve for a pitched roof by strictly 
geometrical methods, is so intricate, and the springs and pitches of 
roofs so varied, that the plumber usually ignores—and is generally 
sensible in doing so—the true methods of cutting out such flashings. 
Lead is pliable; and in lieu of the more tedious method, flashings for 
pitched roofs are roughly laid off as follows, and then worked and 
trimmed to suit. 

The circumference and curvature of the top edge and lines of the 
ends to be joined, are obtained by full-size diagrams in the same way 
as for a sleeve for a flat roof, shown by Fig. 151. The circumference 
of the top edge is, in this case, set off on GH, because the bottom, 
corresponding to JK, is unknown. The elevation A B C D is made 
just as though a sleeve w 7 as to be made for a flat roof, with the tapering 


x 



Fig. 151. Development of Pattern for Tapering 
Sleeve for Vent on a Flat Roof. 











PLUMBING 


169 




side equaling CD, Fig. 152, which should be laid out to represent the 
elevation of the sleeve desired. The pattern diagram (Fig. 151) 
should be so drawn as to throw line X CD about the center or neck of 
the pattern, so as to bring the seam on the low side and thus present 
solid metal to the flow of water down the roof. The line of dots 
marked Z in Fig. 151, approximately outlines the bottom of the 
pattern. The cross-mark guides by which to draw the bottom of the 
flashing, are seldom more than five in practice, and their positions are 
determined in this way: JX and KX of the pattern diagram are 
extended and set off from the GH line equal to XK, Fig. 152. This 
gives the actual seam length for the low 
side of the flashing, as would be indi¬ 
cated if XJ and XK, Fig. 151, were ex¬ 
tended to cut the extremes of the cross¬ 
mark guide line. CD of both the ele- / 
vation and pattern diagram being equal, 

CD, Fig. 151, equals the length of sleeve 
in the neck or upper side. For the 
length of sleeve at the sides, half way 
between the neck and seam, produce 
dotted line ICY, Fig. 152, parallel to 
CX, to a point where it will intersect 
the roof-plane at the center of the pipe 

space. K l X will then be equal to the , T3 . 

1 Fig. 152. Elevation of Tapermg Pipe- 

required side lengths of sleeve, and may sleeve for Pitched Roof, 

be set off on the pattern diagram by pro¬ 
jecting radii from X, cutting the pattern midway between C and the 
seam lines, and setting off the distance XK 1 on these radii, measuring 
from the GII line. These specific points are a sufficient guide for 
laying out the bottom in any ordinary case. 

Trap Ventilation. Needless multiplication of soil and vent 
connections may lead, in some cases, to conditions fully as deplor¬ 
able as any that would follow the primitive simplicity of olden 
times. There are, however, certain principles that must be carried 
out to secure a perfect working job. These have often been cur¬ 
tailed by the extremists of one class, and always at the expense 
of the quality of the work. It is the extremists who regulate 
progress and keep things at a reasonable mean. The extremists in 









170 


PLUMBING 


progression would drag us into practices perhaps unsafe; while their 
opposites, derisively termed “old fogies,” hold us back, sometimes on 
untenable ground. The result is that the conservative element is 
the safest class to follow; it neither discards a well-tried method 
nor embraces a new one, without good reason to sustain the action. 

As before intimated, the change in character of buildings and 
mode of life has necessitated a maze of pipe work in some buildings, 
which to the uninitiated looks like a senseless network thrust on the 
owner to the pecuniary gain of the plumber. This is not the case, 



however, as every plumber well knows; and there is no better way 
to disarm this type of credulity than for the plumber to be well versed 
in the philosophy of his business. 

The familiar cry that crown ventilation of traps destroys the 
seal by evaporation, is often but the echo of the voice of a man with 
an axe to grind. The deep-seal trap costs but a trifle more than the 
ordinary. There are also positive mechanical means—comparatively 
cheap, too—of protecting a vacant or unoccupied house against 
sewer air. In occupied houses, there is no chance for traps to lose 
the seal by evaporation; and, when properly piped, the evaporation 
of seals does not take place so fast as might be supposed. The crown 







































PLUMBING 


171 


vent is merely, or should be, to keep the water from being siphoned 
out of the trap. It is the practice of making the crown vent do duty 


not only as a siphon-preventer but also in the capacity of a stack vent, 


that has created the impression as to rapid 
evaporation. 

If we bring a branch waste to a fixture 
just as though it was to be a “dead-end” con¬ 
nection, and then put in a liberal crown vent 
continued to the roof, as shown in Fig. 153, we 
have filled the letter of most specifications, be¬ 
cause we then have crown ventilation and stack 
ventilation. But this is not the spirit of the 
work specified, nor is it up to the standard of 
intelligent workmanship. The current to the 




Fig. 155. Waste Stack 
Connected to Vent 
Stack above High 
est Fixture. 



Fig. 156. Crown Vent Stack 
and Waste Stack Stand¬ 
ing Close Together, Giv¬ 
ing Loop Effect in 
Pipe Ventilation. 


roof passes up the trap leg, and thence through the crown vent directly 
to the open, being brought on its way in close proximity to the seal of 
the trap; and it is no cause for wonder that such a connection would 


















































































































172 


PLUMBING 


rob an ordinary trap of its seal within a surprisingly short time, if the 
fixture is left unused. This is the type of installation found in the 
wake of speculative builders, scrimping plumbing contractors, and 
ignorant or unscrupulous journeymen. Many examples of this 
double-duty vent pipe are seen, in which the workman foresaw the 
result to some extent, and, in attempting to counteract the supposed 

ills of evaporation, made the vent useless 
as a siphon-preventer by connecting the 
vent 10 inches or more below the crown 
of the trap, as shown in Fig 154. The 
proper way is to make both the waste and 
the crown vent branches from other lines. 
Of course, if it is the top fixture, or there 
is only one on the line, the waste stack 
may end in the beginning of the vent 
stack or connect into the vent stack, as in 
4 ig. 155, according to circumstances. The 
main current goes by the most direct route 
—up the main waste and vent stacks of 
the string. If the crown vent and waste 
stacks stand close together, as in Fig. 156, 
we have the loop effect before spoken of; 
and with the fixtures near the stacks, the 
waste and crown-vent connections are 
both short—which is proper. It is poor 
practice to have the stacks far away from 
the fixtures, because one is then likely to 
fall into the error of allowing the crown 
vent to act also as a direct line vent for 
the branch waste. This plan is such a short-cut to accomplishing 
the work of roughing-in, that the temptation to err is great. If the 
waste stack cannot come near the fixture, then follow the loop 
principle, and turn up and into the vent stack, branching the trap 
into the waste branch, and taking the crown vent into the vent 
stack, as shown in Fig. 157, or into a vent continuation of 
the branch waste, as preferred. If neither main stack can come 
near the fixtures, then loop out from the soil or waste stack to 
the fixture, and back into the main vent, leaving enough upright 



Fig. 157. Method of Securing Loop 
when Waste Stack is not 
Near Vent Stack. 






































PLUMBING 


173 


pipe at the. fixture end of each loop to branch the waste and 
crown vent into, as illustrated in Fig. 158. In this way, half of the 
branch loop acts as a waste, and half as a vent, and there is ventilation 
through the soil or waste branch part 
without continually pulling the air into 
juxtaposition with the trap seal. Also, 
the local branch waste to the trap and the 
crown vent pipe are thus permitted to be 
as short as desired. 

To avoid separate stacks for scat¬ 
tered fixtures, what is termed the contin¬ 
uous system of soil pipe is frequently em¬ 
ployed when practicable. This means 
offsetting the main so as to be able to in¬ 
clude all the fixtures of a toilet-room 
without making long branch wastes. If 
vent lines are also offset in this manner, 
some provision for water-washing the off¬ 
set should be made, as the products of 
corrosion or other foreign matter might 
otherwise fall into and choke the bend at 
the foot of the upper vertical part. Espe¬ 
cially is this true when plain wrought 
pipe is used. Lavatory wastes are gen¬ 
erally used to wash vent lines in such 
cases. 

Some city ordinances permit the 
continuous system practically without 
vents, merely requiring the fixture con¬ 
nections to be not over 3 feet in length, 
and requiring either vents or non-siphon¬ 
ing traps where the stack cannot be 



brought within reach of the 3-foot limit 


Fig. 158. Method of Ventilating 
Pipes where Neither Waste 
Stack nor Crown Vent Stack 
are Near the Fixture. 


placed on branch connections. 

A plan of offsetting, some modification of which may be used in 
any kind of system, is shown in Fig. 159, which makes plain the work 
of offsetting soil waste and vent lines without incurring the risk of 
having trouble with the vent pipe sooner or later. It provides for 
































































174 


PLUMBING 







ranch Soil 


throwing the corrosion of the vent line, both above and below the off¬ 
set, into the soil line, where it will be washed into the sewer by the 
water discharged from the closets and other fixtures. By simply 
offsetting the vent line, the corrosion from the pipe above the offset 
will fall into the bend, drift out into the horizontal part slightly, and 
finally choke up the horizontal vent altogether. As shown by the 
engraving, commencing with the main soil line at the first fixture, 
a branch line is made, and the branch then becomes the main soil line, 
leaving the vertical part for the vent. Next comes the offset, and 

after that another 
hToRoof-k branch line for soil 

fixtures, again leav- 
BrancR Vent J n g the vertical pipe 

for the vent, so that 
whatever falls down 
the vent, either 
above or below the 
offset, lands in the 
soil pipe and is car¬ 
ried away with the 
water. With this 
arrangement, the 
only possible 
chance for the vent 
to clog with corro¬ 
sion is in the hori¬ 
zontal part of the 
vent offset. What 
corrosion takes 

place in a piece of horizontal pipe, is not sufficient to warrant con¬ 
sideration in itself. There is no other corrosion to be taken care of, 
except that which forms in the few feet of vertical pipe between A and 
B, which will not be enough to restrict materially the area of the 
pipe. It is best to make the piece of pipe between A and B as short 
as possible. 

With the continuous system, several offsets, simple or more or 
less complex, as shown in Fig. 159, may be necessary in the same 
stack, according to location of fixtures and the scheme of venting and 



Fig. 159. Method of Offsetting Soil Waste and Vent Lines. 





















































































PLUMBING 


175 


trapping. Fig. 153 shows a group of fixtures piped diametrically 
opposite to the continuous stack idea. The main stack does not 
deviate in favor of odd fixtures. Regular open wall-traps are used. 
The crown vents are assembled into one stack, and carried up inde¬ 
pendently or into the stack above the highest fixture. As before 
stated, the plan shown in Fig. 153 is faulty in that it favors evaporation 
of the trap seals by putting the extra duty of a line-vent current on 
the siphon or crown-vent branch. 

Anti-siphon traps often simplify ventilation problems, especially 
in awkward situations where it would be very difficult to vent a fixture 
properly with pipe. Fig. 160 illustrates an example of this kind, in 
which non-siphon¬ 
ing traps are used 
on bath and lava¬ 
tory without any | 
form of crown or i 
branch line vents. 

In good practice, 
bath traps are 
placed convenient 
to reach, having 
screw-top h a n d- 
hole with cover in 

full view at the Fig. 160. Anti-Siphoning Traps Dispensing with Necessity for 

Vent Lines. 

floor-level. 

Soil Stacks. The size to make a soil stack is largely a matter 
of opinion. There are examples of 10-inch stacks serving 40 
closets with the usual complement of lavatories and urinals. There 
are also instances where as many as 75 closets and numerous 
other fixtures all discharge into a 5-inch stack which has 
never given any indication of being too small. Although com¬ 
mon usage requires a 4-inch soil stack, there seems little ad¬ 
vantage in adhering to this dimension in small and simple 
installations. When the plumbing was designed for the city of 
Pullman, Ill., more than twenty years ago, 3-inch soil stacks were 
used for small dwellings, and in some cases they were placed in a 
party wall, so as to afford service for two adjoining houses. The 
plumbing regulations of Washington, D. C., have allowed for some 









































176 


PLUMBING 


years past the construction of 3-inch soil stacks for dwellings having 
only a single bathroom, and the practice has been justified by favor¬ 
able results. When it is considered that the outlet of a closet is 
rarely more than 2| inches in diameter, it appears that a size smaller 
than 4 inches is often allowable. 

The size does not increase with the number of fixtures. Very 
few of a hundred closets in a building would ordinarily be flushed 
simultaneously. A 5-inch stack would answer well for 100 closets 
in a tall building where the toilet-rooms are superimposed, as shown 
in Fig. 161, which outlines the soil, waste, and vent pipes of several 



Fig. 161. Showing Layout of Soil, Waste, and Vent Pipes of Several Groups of 

Superimposed Fixtures in Same Building. 


groups of fixtures, rain-water leaders, etc. If the same number of 
closets were at one elevation, and the fall only moderate, common 
sense would dictate a 6, 8, or 10-inch line, with 4-inch fixture branches. 

The velocity with which the water will flow away should be a 
prime factor, but sizes in soil and waste pipes are far more a matter of 
empiricism than in supply work. A soil pipe not too large is self- 
scouring in a sense. This point is erroneously argued in favor of 
small waste pipes. If a soil pipe too small for the duty should be 
installed, ordinary usage would develop the fact quickly. But in a 
waste outlet, where grease is likely to accompany the water, a pipe 







































DEFLECTOR RING AND HUB OF SCREW PUMP, CHICAGO SYSTEM OF INTERCEPTING SEWERS 

Erected at 39th Street Pumping Station 



























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X 

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02 


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tc 

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PLUMBING 


177 


large enough to carry the waste easily when the pipe is new, may be¬ 
come choked after a considerable period of time, and merely because it 
is of the size so-called “self-scouring.” A house line which may be 
much too large for the waste will be likely to choke from floating 
matter adhering to the sides above the water line until overhanging 
ridges are formed that break down in the channel. Being too heavy 
for the water to push along, this matter acts as a dam, and complete 
stoppage soon results. This is why large sewers are built with elliptical 
bottom section. Having variable flows to take care of, the depth of 
water produced by ordinary usage cleanses the conduit, and keeps it 
in much better condition than if round conduits of the same capacity 
were employed. 

Slope. With due respect for appearance, all the fall possible 
should be given lateral soil and waste lines. About X 3 G inch to the foot 



(one degree) is taken as the minimum. With cast pipe and leaded 
joints, much more than this can be given, by gaining change of direc¬ 
tion in setting the joints. With screwed fittings for wrought pipe, tap¬ 
ped, pitched one degree from the nominal angle, less latitude to vary the 
fall is offered. Considerable variation is possible, however, by cutting 
pitched threads on the pipe. In positions where the cutting of one 
pitched thread entails the work of cutting another with the pitch 
just opposite that of the first in order to follow the perpendicular 
again, the work is irksome and is seldom resorted to. Cast fittings, 
threaded, for drainage work, are recessed in the ends, so that, when 
screwed on the pipe, the pipe and interior of the fitting are of the same 
diameter, thus presenting no jog or broken edges to favor stoppage. 
Stoppage of drains of any kind is likely from many causes; and during 
installation, trap-screw ferrules, or tees with brass plugs, according 
to the kind of pipe being used, should be provided along the line, as 













178 


PLUMBING 


shown in Fig. 1G2, so as to make the work of cleansing as convenient 
and inexpensive as possible. 

Sizes of Soil and Waste Pipe. The usual sizes for soil 
and* waste work are: 5-inch for ordinary house main (horizon¬ 
tal); 4-inch for 1 to 4 closets; 
5-inch horizontal branch from 
5-inch stack for a battery of five 
or more closets; 5-inch stack for 
any ordinary number of fixtures; 
main vent stack, same size as 
soil-stack; loop vent, same size as 
stack; crown-vent stacks, 2 or 
3-inch; slop-sink stacks, 3 or 4-inch; 
closet connection, 4-inch; closet 
crown vent, 2-inch; slop-sink con¬ 
nection, 3-inch; slop-sink vent, 
2-inch; urinal stacks, 3-inch; uri¬ 
nal branch wastes, 2-inch; urinal 
trap vents, 1J to 2-inch; bath stacks, 
3-inch; bath-waste connection, 2-inch; lavatory wastes, 2-inch. The 
2-inch refers to the size of cast pipe used in the case of lavatories 
and baths; the lead trap and connections of 
these, and often of other fixtures, are made 
14-inch. Small lavatories often have lj-inch | 
waste. The crown vent is usually one size 
less than the trap for all but closets and slop 
sinks. Of late, bath-waste outlets are fre¬ 
quently made 2-inch. Ivitchen-sink stacks are 
made 3-inch; single sinks or branch waste for 
one sink or set of trays, 2-inch, with 2-inch trap 
and 14-inch crown vent. 

Local Ventilation. A ’ccal vent is a 

. . iio Fig- 164, Part Section of 

pipe leading air from the bowl of a closet Locally vented urinal 
110 . and Connection. 

or through the outlet of a urinal to carry away 

odors with a current of air fed by the air of the room. In Fig. 163 
are shown two openings for urinals where the roughing-in pro¬ 
vides for local ventilation for the urinal bowls in a way that is 
equivalent to the local vent pipe to a closet bowl. V is a general 

















































PLUMBING 


179 


vent stack, and IV the urinal waste stack. Instead of putting in crown 
vents lor the traps, the branch waste becomes a vent at the junction 
of the trap branches, and loops back into the general vent stack. 
There is sufficient ventilation in this case for two reasons—the traps 
are close to the line; and the current up the main local vent stack is 
induced and maintained by a fan motor, which, in drawing the odors 
from the urinal bowl, creates more or less suction on the house side 
of the trap seals and counteracts the tendency toward siphonage on 


the sewer side. The roughing-in 
shown, is hid by marble slabs in 
the finished work. 

A section of the marble back, 
with urinal and vent and waste 
connection, is shown in Fig. 1G4, 
which makes clear what is meant 
by local urinal ventilation. The 
difference between it and local closet 
ventilation, is that as the trap for 
the urinal is not in the urinal proper, 
the current from the room passes 
through the urinal outlet except 
while it is flushing; while in the 
closet the local vent connection is 
made to the bowl above the visible 
water-level, because the trap below 
interferes with connecting it other- 



Fig. 165. Locally Vented Trap for Urinal 
and Floor Drain Combined. 


wise. 

Another plan of local-venting ft urinal is shown in Fig. 165, in 
which the urinal trap answers as a trap to the floor drain as well, and 
the local-vent current passes down through the grating of the floor- 
slab drain and up through the urinal waste to the point where the 
urinal proper connects. Between the trap and urinal connection, the 
pipe is a waste and local vent combined, its continuation above the 
urinal vent connection being simply a local vent pipe, the area of 
which being equal to the combined area of the urinal outlet and floor- 
slab grating, a current also passes from the urinal bowl through its 
outlet into the local vent pipe. The only fault to be found with this 
arrangement is the abnormal distance of the trap from the fixture, 
























180 


PLUMBING 


which, however, is of little consequence so long as the means for pro- 



Fig. 167. Rougliing-in for Adjacent Toilet-Rooms on Same Floor of Double-Flat 

Building. 


ducing a current in the local vent stack is doing its duty. Fig. 166 
shows the openings left for a battery of closets that are to be set on a 




























































































PLUMBING 


1S1 


tile floor. The uprights connect into a branch soil line below. The 

illustration is given to show a system of venting which can be used 
with closets that do not permit of crown venting. 

Local vent stacks are round or rectangular, and are made of 
galvanized sheet iron. Unlike the soil or supply pipe system, the 



stack system is made proportional; that is, the area of the stack at 
any point is an approximation to the aggregate area of all the vent 
branches that have been connected into it up to that point. The 
local vent stack is sometimes carried into the same shaft which 
incloses the smoke-pipe from the boilers. In other cases it is connected 


























































































































182 


PLUMBING 


lilt 

gjjj 

—LLJI—II —II Jl II II II -n—n—1 


HtlilP) 


with an exhaust fan driven by power, usually supplied by an electric 
motor, thus insuring a constant air-current. Bowl or local ventilation 
is not generally installed in dwellings. The closet does not receive 

such frequent usage in private 
houses as in larger buildings such 
as hotels, offices, etc.; and in the 
smaller structures there is no hot 
flue that can be depended upon for 
purposes of aspiration. If led to the 
open air, the vent will act very well 
in warm weather; but during the 
winter months it will be likely, 
through reversal of the current, to 
bring in cold air and disseminate 
the odor through the apartment. 

Soil Pipe and Fittings. Under 
the head of specialties, many forms 
of patented soil-pipe traps and fit¬ 
tings have been placed on the mar¬ 
ket from time to time, with a view 
to lessening labor and cost and 
simplifying the work of roughing-in 
for plumbing fixtures. Of these, a 
singular instance of the use of one 
type will be noticed. Fig. 167 illus¬ 
trates a well-known line used in 
roughing-in for the toilet-rooms of a 
double-flat building. Being drawn 
in perspective, the function and 
merit of every fitting shown is self- 
evident. Fig. 168 gives in plan 
view the roughing-in shown in Fig. 
167. The location of the fixtures 
on the floor below the plan of 
piping, is indicated in solid lines by a, b, and c. On other 
floors, corresponding fixtures for the stack shown, are of course 
superimposed as a matter of economy and convenience. Fig. 169 
is a broken general view of the waste and vent stacks for the laundries 



Fig. 169. Broken General View of Waste 
and Vent Stacks for Laundries 
and Kitchen Sinks of a 
Flat Building. 




























































PLUMBING 


183 


and kitchen sinks of the same building, the roughing-in work and 
some of the fixtures being shown. The regular standard soil-pipe 
and fittings can be made to answer for any case, although incon¬ 
venience and 
. additional ex¬ 
pense are of¬ 
ten incurred Fig. Single-Hixb Length of Standard Soil-Pipe. 

in working fit¬ 
tings of stand¬ 
ard d imen- 

sioilS in close Fig. 171. Double-Hub Length of Standard Soil-Pipe. 

quarters. 

There are several weights of soil pipe and fittings used, varying 
with the building or with the requirements of city or state sanitary 
laws, etc. The weight known as standard is sometimes used on 

buildings under four stories in height, and 
for vent pipes and soil-pipe extensions above 
the highest fixture. Extra heavy pipe and 
fittings are used in tall buildings and in 
most ordinary work, for all soil and waste 
purposes below the highest fixture. The 
standard length of soil pipe for all diame¬ 
ters, is five feet, exclusive of hub. 

Fig. 170 shows a regular single-hub length. 
Fig. 173, D ^ie t Hu® end Wlth Fig. 171 represents the double-hub length 

employed to avoid the use of double-hub 
fittings and extra joints where less than full lengths are required 
in cases where the cost of regular extension pieces would exceed the 





Fig. 173. 


Fig. 174. 

Short-Radius Bends for Soil-Pipe. 


Fig. 175. 





price of double-hub pipe. Fig. 172 is a quarter-bend with double 
hub. It is of the long-sweep or long-radius pattern. r Lhe whole list 
of standard regular fittings is made in the long-radius pattern. They 
































































184 


PLUMBING 


should be used where possible; but the shorter-radius type, corre¬ 
sponding to that shown in Figs. 173 to 180, is most generally employed 
because the little room available enables the plumber to lay lines in 

places where cramped con¬ 
ditions make the use of the 
long radius impossible. 

One-sixteenth, one- 
eighth, o n e - s i xt h , one- 
fourth, and return bends 
Fig. 177. single y. embrace the regular list of 

soil-pipe bends, giving a 
range in angles from 224 to 180 degrees in the same plane; and, by 
winding them, giving a twist to the joints, almost any angle with the 
original direction can be obtained. 

A wider range of bends is offered in the recessed and threaded 



Fig. 176. Return Bend 
for Cast Soil-Pipe. 



Fig. 178. Double Y-Branch. 


Fig. 179. San¬ 
itary Tee. 


Fig. 180. Double San¬ 
itary Tee. 


cast-iron drainage fittings for use with wrought pipe. Omitting the 
filched ells and tees for regular fall, 5f degrees is the most obtuse 
fitting regularly made. 

The return bend for cast soil-pipe is represented by Fig. 176; 



Fig. 181. Quarter- 
Bend with Side 
“Outlet.” 



Fig. 182. Quarter- 
Bend with Heel 
“Outlet.” 



Fig. 183. Single 
Y with Side 
“Outlet.” 


single Y, by Fig. 177; double Y-branch, by Fig. 178; sanitary tee, 
by Fig. 179; and the double sanitary tee, by Fig. 180. The tee and 
double tee shown are known as the sanitary pattern, on account of the 
















































































































































































PLUMBING 


185 


curved branches, which direct the flow in the pipe line somewhat in 
the same manner as does a Y-connection. Common tees and crosses 
aie made in strictly right-angle branches. The J-bend is also made 
with right and left 




Fig. 184. Double Y- 
Branch with Trap- 
Screw Clean-Out. 


Fig. 185. Bolted-Plate Clean-Out 
on Soil-Pipe, 


side-outlet, as indi¬ 
cated by Fig. 181; 
and with heel-out¬ 
let, as shown in 
Fig. 182. Tees, 
crosses, and Y’s 
can be had with 
side outlet as shown at b, Fig. 183. These auxiliary openings, while 
always termed outlets by the trade, are in fact inlet branches. Long 

^ branch fittings, with a branch equivalent to a Y 
and J-bend connection, are also made. 

Offsets may be had to offset the pipe as little 
as half of one diameter, and up to six diameters. 
Any of the standard branches can be had with 
trap-screw clean-out, as shown at a, Fig. 184. The 
bolted-plate clean-out, indicated in Fig. 185, is 
undesirable, as the cover can rarely be securely 
replaced when removed for purposes of cleaning. 
A series of cast soil-pipe fittings are made with 
branches threaded for wrought pipe, as shown in 
Fig. 186. These meet the demand for a means 
of easily connecting wrought vent-pipes to a cast-iron pipe line. 
Similarly, combination lead and brass soldering nipples threaded 
for wrought pipe are now carried by supply houses, the lead 



Fig. 186. Cast Soil- 
Pipe with Threaded 
Branch to Connect 
to Wrought Pipe. 



Fig. 187. Combination Lead and Brass 
Soldering Nipple Threaded 
for Wrought Pipe. 


Fig. 188. Combination Lead 
and Iron Ferrule, “Ray¬ 
mond” Type. 


being furnished straight, as shown in Fig. 187, or in the form of 
a quarter-bend. These are very convenient for use with wrought 
vents, and are equivalent to the regular combination lead and iron 








































































































186 


PLUMBING 


ferrule, shown in Fig. 188; they can be used with cast pipe by calking- 
in. This combination ferrule—commonly known as a “Raymond” 
ferrule, from its maker—is sometimes damaged during the process of 
calking; and sometimes the outer covering is burned through in 
making the solder joint. For these reasons, its use is prohibited in 
many localities. 

Brass ferrules for calking-in make a oetter job than lead and iron; 
but in case of their use, it is necessary to wipe on a piece of lead, which 
in cramped connections is sometimes most inconvenient; and both 
the ferrule and the work are more expensive. 

The recessed or hub ferrule shown at b, Fig. 189, is a good form 
of ferrule. It is not satisfactory, however, as usually sold. The 
stock length brings the increase in diameter necessary for the recess 
close to the face of the hub of the fitting, making it very difficult to 



Fig. 189. Brass Ferrules-5, Recessed or Hub; c. Straight; e, with Lead End Con¬ 
tracted to Make Joint with Smaller Pipe. 


yarn and calk, even before the lead pipe is wiped on; and as these 
joints are usually wiped before the ferrule is calked in place, it is 
difficult to make safe joints where they are used. The forms of brass 
ferrule generally used are shown at c and e, Fig. 189, the lead end of e 
being contracted for use with lj-inch pipe or less. 

Soil=Pipe Joints. A section of a soil-pipe joint is shown in 
Fig. 190. The materials used in making these joints are good, 
clean hemp or oakum, with melted lead poured in and afterward 
calked. The packing to support the lead should be of uniform 
strand, evenly twisted. When a joint is made with pipe cut to 
length, the bead having been cut off the spigot end, care must be 
taken to pack the yarn uniformly tight without driving it through 
into the bore of the pipe, and in a way to keep the spigot end 
in the center of the hub space so as to get a uniform thickness 










































PLUMBING 


187 


of lead on all sides. As an extra precaution in difficult places, 
the packing is sometimes dipped in linseed oil, and then wrung as 
dry as possible, before yarning a joint. This gives almost positive 
assurance that the joint will not leak water. 

Likewise, shavings of sperm candle whittled in 
on top of the yarn before pouring the lead, pre¬ 



vent water leakage. 




Fig. 190. Section of 
Soil-Pipe Calked 
Joint. 


Some plumbers pour in just enough lead to 
make a ring around, and calk it down reasonably 
tight on top of the yarn, before pouring the hub 
full. Unless very little yarn is used, this does 
not leave a solid ring of lead deep enough to in¬ 
sure the best joint; and if too little yarn is em¬ 
ployed, there is danger of the lead burning its 
way through into the pipe. This method is 
therefore undesirable in either case. 

Care should be taken before pouring a joint, to see that no threads 
of yarn are standing above the face of the hub; otherwise a leak may 
result from stray threads protruding. Becoming charred by the heat 
of the lead, they soon leave a tiny hole through the lead, from which 
trouble results. No matter what the position of the joint, the entire 
charge of lead to complete it should be poured at one time, and the 
lead should be hot enough to insure a true union of the meeting edges. 
If the pipe is large or the weather very cold, it is better to warm the 



Fig. 191. Good Type of Closet Floor- 
Joint. 



Fig. 192. Secure Type of Floor- 
Joint, for Closets which can be 
Revolved about the Outlet. 


hub in order to insure the flowing edges uniting, than to risk pouring 
the lead so hot that it may burn through the packing. 

It is a matter of opinion, whether or not a joint should always be 
calked while it is hot. If the pipe is heavy enough to stand it without 

















































188 


PLUMBING 


cracking the hub, it can make little difference whether the joint is 
calked hot or cold. If the pipe is light, a hard calking while the 
joint is hot and the hub expanded may cause splitting of the hub 
when it contracts from cooling. The best plan appears to be that of 
driving down the lead reasonably tight while it is hot and therefore 
softer than when cold, at which time it will give and adjust itself to 
the irregularities of the hub and spigot. Then, a little later, calk 
twice around with a thin-edge tool, driving the lead into contact with 
the spigot surface on one edge, and against the inner hub surface on 
the other. 

Floor Joints. A closet floor joint of good type is shown in 
Fig. 191. In this joint, a bevel-edged brass floor-plate is screwed to 
the floor and well soldered to the end of the lead bend, as indicated. 
The floor-plate has slots for the closet bolts, so that any variation in the 
position of the bolt holes in the flange of the closet pedestal will not 
cause trouble when aligning the bolts, as they can be slid along in 
the slots of the plate to the required position. Common putty, 
plaster of Paris, or hydraulic cement may be used instead of a rubber 
gasket; but the latter two materials make it difficult to remove the 
closet from its setting, and there is always risk of breaking the flange 
if the pedestal has to be moved for any reason. 

A secure type of joint, introduced a few years since, is shown 
in Fig. 192. This connection is well suited for such types of closets 
as can be revolved about the outlet, but cannot be used with closets 
where the outlet is well toward the rear of the fixture 

TRAPS 

Traps are made in many forms, none of which combines every 
desirable feature. A trap with vertical drop at the inlet is considered 
best for the main intercepting trap, as it allows the incoming water 
to break up the scum and floating matter so that it will be carried 
out promptly by the flow. This form also presents a difficult place 
for sewer rats to climb, and is therefore favored for that reason also. 

In regular fixture traps, open-neck bends, and the least surface 
possible, are favored. The Y and -J-bend connections in one fitting, 
and other fittings combining the virtues of the open bends of long- 
radius fittings, are used merely because they offer little chance of 





PLUMBING 


189 


stoppage; but traps should have every part exposed to view in order 
to betray leakage. Tide-water traps are usually nothing more than 
simple, large, swinging check-valves. Some intercepting traps are 
provided with a swinging check. The tide-water feature is necessary 
only when high water or tides are likely to raise the water into which 
the sewer discharges so as to flood the cellar through fixture openings. 

Siphonage. Traps introduce into plumbing the element of 
siphonage . This may be normal and desirable, as in the case of 
closets which discharge their contents by siphonic action; but siphon¬ 
age in fixture traps, and the means of preventing it, are prime factors 
in every plumber’s work. 

Ordinary siphonage can best be illustrated by a few simple 


A 



Fig. 193. U-Tube 
with Legs of 
Equal Length. 



Fig. 194. U-Tube 
Inverted. 



Fig. 195. Inverted U- 
Tube with Legs of 
Unequal Length. 


diagrams showing the principles involved. In Fig. 193 is shown a 
U-tube with legs of equal length, filled with water. If we invert 
the tube, as shown in Fig. 194, the water will not run out, because 
the legs are of equal length, and contain equal weights of water, which 
will pull downward from the top with the same force, tending to form a 
vacuum at A. Cohesion of the particles of water, together with equal 
atmospheric support of the water at the open ends of the tube, prevents 
any appreciable void space when the U is of short length. If one of 
the legs is lengthened, as in Fig. 195, so that the column of water is 
heavier on one side than on the other, the water will run out. The 
atmospheric pressure being practically equal on both legs, the greater 
weight of the water in the long end, through cohesion, assisted by 
the air-pressure, pulls the water in the shorter tube up over the bend, 
much as an unbalanced chain would run over a pulley. The columns 





























190 


PLUMBING 


of water in the tube in this case may be likened to a piece of rope 
hanging over a pulley; when equal lengths hang on each side, it will 
remain stationary; but if one end is longer and therefore heavier 

than the other, the whole rope will be drawm 
over by the longer and heavier portion. 

If the short leg of Fig. 195 be dipped in a ves¬ 
sel of water, as shown in Fig. 196, we then have 
the conditions necessary to form a common 
siphon. The atmospheric pressure, which be¬ 
fore acted on the water at the bottom of the 
short leg of the tube, then becomes operative on 
the surface of the water in the vessel, and the 
flow through the tube will continue until the 
water-level in the vessel falls slightly below the 
end of the tube, admitting air and breaking 
the siphonic action. Gravity acts proportionally on the water of both 
legs of the U during siphonage, and the point of tension is therefore 
at the highest point of the bend. 

If the bend should be pierced at the top, air-pressure would be 
established at both ends of each leg, and gravity would instantly 
empty the short leg into the vessel. It is in this manner that a crown 
vent to a common fixture trap breaks the flow and throws enough 





water back into the body of the trap to preserve the water-seal. Fig. 
197 shows the principle of Fig. 196 applied to the trap of a plumbing 
fixture. If the bowl is well filled with water, so that when the stopper 






































PLUMBING 


191 


is removed from the bottom, the waste pipe for some distance below the 
trap will be filled with a solid column of water, siphonic action like 
that just described will take place and the trap will be drained. A 
sufficient amount of w r ater runs down from the fixture and sides of the 
pipe above the trap to partially provide for the seal, its full restoration 
being assured when a crown vent is used, by water being thrown back 
from the short leg of the siphon (center leg of the trap) as shown in 
Fig. 19S. 

The direct action of the w T ater of a fixture 
in breaking its own trap seal by siphonage, is 
called self-siphonage. A more common form of 
trap siphonage in defective work, is where tw r o or 
more fixtures connect with the same waste pipe, as 
shown in Fig. 199. In such cases, the seal of the 
low T er fixture is more apt to be broken by the dis¬ 
charge of the upper. The falling column of 
water leaves behind it a partial vacuum in the soil 
pipe; and the outer air tends to rush into the pipe 
through the way of least resistance, which is often 
through the trap seal of the fixture below The 
friction of the rough sides of a tall soil-pipe, even 
though it be open at the roof, opposed to the 
flow of air through it, will sometimes offer more 
resistance than the trap seals of the fixtures, with 
the result that the seals are broken, and gases 
from the drain are free to enter the building. 

Kinds of Traps. The kinds of fixture traps 
are innumerable. They can be divided into two 
general classes—those that seal with water only, and those that have 
a mechanical seal as an adjunct to that of the water. These may 
be again divided into plain and anti-siphoning classes. 

The trap having no concealed partitions and with all its walls 
exposed to view, is best. If the water leaks through the wall, its 
defectiveness is evident, and the annoyance from the leak suggests 
repairing. 

Of the simple water-seal fixture traps, the open-walled drawn 
lead is used for ordinary work. It can be had with equal-length arms 
or with extended inlet or outlet, so as to reach from fixture to floor or 



Fig. 199. Two Un- 
vented Fixtures Con¬ 
nected toSameWaste 
Pipe, Causing Self- 
Siphonage. 











192 


PLUMBING 


wall without a piece of intermediate pipe. The form shown by full 
lines in Fig. 200 represents a full “S” pattern. When the ends are 
bent as per dotted lines A and C, the trap is called a running trap; 

D 


» 

c; 

i 

c- 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

V 

s' 

''L 


Fig. 200. “S”-Pattern Trap. Fig. 201. A Bag Trap. 

when the ends are at D and C it is said to be a halJ-S or P trap; 
when the ends are set as at D and E, it is called a f-$ trap. F is a 
clean-out screw for emptying and cleansing. The distance represented 
by X should, in a trap for ordinary purposes, be J to 2 inches, according 
to size. Frequently this distance, which constitutes the water-lock, 
is much reduced; and sometimes the trap is unsealed by the plumber 
stretching its bends in order to reach some faulty roughing-in. 

In buildings where the plumbing may be left unused for weeks 
from time to time, as is likely in rented houses, deep-seal traps, or 

those with mechanical seals also, should be 
used. This point is not so important in de¬ 
tached houses or those rented to one family 
only at a time, since, when a family moves 
out, there is no one to suffer. But in flat 
buildings, where some of the flats may be 
vacant for a time sufficient for an ordinary 
seal to be broken while other families are 
living in the house, deep-seal traps are more 
essential. 

Fig. 201 shows what is termed sl bag 
trap, made to bring the inlet and outlet in the 
same vertical line. These traps are inter¬ 
changeable with any others with straight-line outlet—for instance, 
as shown in Fig. 204. 

An open-wall trap partly cast and partly tubing, generally made 


















































PLUMBING 


193 


of brass, is shown in Fig. 202, the vent connection to wall being at A. 
This form of trap generally has a swivel-joint at B, which is below the 
water line, so that the body may be swiveled to meet roughing-in 
openings in any direction within two diam¬ 
eters of the line of fixture outlet. The bag 
form shown is most convenient for D-shape 
or standing waste bowls which present the 
outlet comparatively near the wall. The 
regular “S” of this type suits bowls with 
center outlet, and will reach a wider range 
of variation in roughing-in. 

Fig. 203 shows a common lead drum or 
pot trap, most convenient to the plumber. It 
is furnished without openings, and the plumber makes bends, and 
wipes-in his inlet and outlet at points in the circumference most con¬ 
venient to reach the fixture opening. A is the screw-top clean-out; 

and B, the wrench-face for turning it. 
The trap is furnished, when desired, 
with nickel-plated brass flanged cover, 
as shown at C , to screw on at the floor- 
level. F is ordinarily the outlet, the 
inlet being wiped-in near the bottom 
to give it the water-lock. This is not 
proper, however, as it puts the sewer 
air against the clean-out cover, which 
might leak gases into the building 
without betraying any evidence of its 
defectiveness by water leakage. To be 
strictly correct, F should be the inlet; 
and the outlet, in the shape of an off¬ 
set, or that of an inverted P-trap with¬ 
out the trap-screw, should be wiped- 
in near the bottom in a way to retain 
the proper seal and thus bring the sewer 
air against the water-seal instead of the 
clean-out cover. 

Traps that retain their seals by means of interior weirs are of 
doubtful character,even at their best; none but well-tested cast-brass 



Fig. 204. Section of Flask or Atlas 
Trap, with Two Interior Weirs. 















































































194 


PLUMBING 



Fig. 205. Bath Trap with 
Submerged Inlet. 


traps of such a pattern should ever be installed. Fig. 204 is a section 

of a -flask or Atlas trap, with vent, 
usually made of cast brass and de¬ 
pending upon two interior weirs to 
form the seal, one retaining the 
water, and the other dipping into the 
water to prevent sewer air from get¬ 
ting into the house through the fix¬ 
ture. If the water weir of such a 
trap becomes defective, there is no 
evidence except odors by which the 
occupants may discover it. If the 
dipping weir is defective the value 
of the water seal is nil. In either 
case the trap is no barrier to the admission of drain air to the house. 

Fig. 205 illustrates a form of trap 
suitable for use with baths. It has 
a submerged inlet connection which 
is expanded so that the flow enters 
the trap at a dipping angle which 
produces a swirl with cleansing 
effect. The extension collar A is 
made so that the screw-cover B 
forms the gasket joint below the 
water-level. The method of pro¬ 
viding the outlet in this trap makes 
it open to the same objection raised 
in connection with Fig. 203. This 
form, however, has the merit of being 
accessible for inspection without dis¬ 
turbing its service, which is impos¬ 
sible with the flask pattern shown 
in Fig. 204. 

The lavatory trap shown 


m 



Fig. 206, has an interior weir as 
shown at A ; but the wall is doubled 
in such a way as to betray defec¬ 
tiveness by water leakage. It is made of cast metal, and is furnished 


Fig. 206. Lavatory Trap with Interior 
Flanged Weir. Weir is Double-Walled 
to Betray Leakage. 











































































































PLUMBING 


195 



Fig. 207. Trap with Me¬ 
chanical Seal Acting by 
Flotation. 


with either glass or metal dome. The strong point claimed for this 
trap is the cleansing effect obtained by the flange extension of the 
exit, as shown at A, deflecting some of the 
water, which, together with the swirling effect 
produced by the tangential inlet, makes the 
trap self-cleansing. 

Of the traps having a mechanical seal sup¬ 
plementing the water-lock, Fig. 207 is a specific 
type. The mechanical valve D is a rubber ball, 
lighter than an equal bulk of water, playing in R 
the cup C. It acts by flotation, and presses up 
against the inlet A with a force equal to the dif- 
erence in weight of the ball and the water it dis¬ 
places. The body is generally made of lead; 
and the cup of glass, with screw-joint and 
gasket at F. This trap is proof against back¬ 
water; and, in case the waste line becomes choked below, will pre¬ 
vent a fixture from flooding even when others are discharged at a 
higher level. It has, however, several faults that counterbalance its 

merits. The inlet is open to the 
same criticisms that an interior wall 
of any other trap would be; the an¬ 
nular space at R accumulates filth; 
and the mechanical seal is worthless 
when most needed—that is, in the 
absence of the water-seal. 

Another mechanical seal trap, 
shown in Fig. 208, is the exact oppo¬ 
site of the previous example. The 
ball sinks by gravity, and effects a 
mechanical seal even when the water 
seal is absent. This trap is not so 
easily siphoned as a plain trap. It 
has a clean-out screw, and can be had 
with vent opening. Air from the 
sewer side acts against the clean-out 
cap through which access is had to the ball, and there are interior 
walls to become defective with little chance of discovery in practice. 









































































196 


PLUMBING 


■msrfW///razzm,T/7227rT777r. 


A combined mechanical and water-seal trap is shown in Fig. 209, 
in which D is a hollow, flexible ball inclosing a metal ball D y , thus 
giving a resilient seating surface that finds its place by gravity in 
water. The arrangement is proof against back-water, and the 
mechanical seal is positive without the aid of water. A represents 
the basin; B, the basin coupling; C, the valve seat; F, a glass cylinder 
body; and GG, a clamp with thumb-screw G l , for clamping the 
cylinder body in place. This trap holds a large amount of water, and 
is not likely to become unsealed from lack of use, as part of the seal 

is protected by the 
ball, and should the 
w a t e r evaporate, 
the mechanical seal 
is still effective. 
There are no in¬ 
terior walls through 
which the trap 
could lose its seal 
without betraying 
the fact by leakage. 
Generally speaking, 
mechanical seals in 
fixture traps cannot 
be depended upon. 

Anti-siphoning 
traps are a blessing 
in instances where pipe ventilation is difficult. It would be better to 
have none of them, however, than to attempt to supplant pipe venti¬ 
lation by their use to any great extent. 

It would be impossible here to consider the whole list of traps 
individually in an adequate manner. What has been said should be 
enough to enable one by careful study to decide each case intelligently 
upon its merits. Many special traps are deserving of more favor 
than is generally shown them. It is the fear of seeming to indorse the 
horde of cheap competitive articles that causes many to ignore alike 
the good and bad. This fear is well grounded. The wolves will creep 
in if the door is opened at all. 

Loss of Traps Seals. Traps may lose their seals in six ways—by 



Pig. 209. 


Trap with Combined Water-Seal and Gravity- 
Acting Mechanical Seal. 












































































PLUMBING 


197 


waving out, by capillary action, by leakage, by evaporation, by siphon- 
age, and—if the use of an unusual term be permissible—by impella- 
tion. The first, with its cause, has been described (see page 163). The 
last, like waving out, is caused by air-pressure, but on the house side 
instead of the sewer side of the trap. It occurs most frequently in 
intercepting traps where the fresh-air inlet has been connected too far 
from the trap, thus allowing heavy discharges of water and storm 
floods to compress the air between the fresh-air inlet and the trap. 
This action is of little consequence when so caused, as there is abun¬ 
dance of water to re-establish the seal. Its mention, however, suggests 
that a portion of the pipe is left unventilated by connecting the inlet 
too far from the trap. This error is usually made with good intention, 
because the foul-air outlet and 
fresh-air inlet are often made in the 
trap proper and are therefore too 
close together to pipe to the surface 
directly. There is a singular instance 
on record, of a trap having its seal 
broken by pressure on the house 
side—not from pressure of air in 
the pipe, but of that in the room 
into which the trap seal opened. 

This was a water-closet in a tight, 
unventilated compartment in a pri¬ 
vate house. Odors were often present which no one could account 
for. The job was new and first-class. The house was well built— 
too well. After many others had failed to diagnose the trouble, a 
plumber with some philosophy in his make-up examined the job. He 
stood in the hall, and slammed the closet-room door. It failed to latch, 
the room being so tight that the air-pressure kept it from seating 
on the rabbet of the frame. The door, of course, was instantly thrown 
partly open again by expansion ol the air, and the plumber caught 
a glimpse of the water in the closet-bowl bobbing up and down. By 
repeating the experiment and measuring the depth of water between 
times, he discovered that, as suspected, the sudden closing of the door 
of the small, tight room was thrusting the water down in the bowl and 
causing enough to flow over into the soil pipe to break the seal. The 
trouble was remedied by cutting \ inch olf the door at the bottom. 



Fig. 210. Foreign Matter (Lint, Strings, 
etc.) Causing Capillary Loss 
of Trap Seal. 

















198 


PLUMBING 


Topof SioH-bacK 

or S'cxb-bacK 


Evaporation lias been described elsewhere. Leakage of seals has 
been mentioned in conjunction with types of fixture traps. Siphon- 
age of traps is simple. The conditions necessary to start a common 
siphon being established in a waste pipe, the seal will be drawn 
out. The discharge of water from a fixture will siphon its trap 
(self-siphonage), if no provision against siphonage is made. The 
crown vent pipe, as described, breaks the siphon in a trap when its 
fixture is discharging, and prevents other fixtures from siphoning or 
waving out the seal. Capillary loss of seal occurs through hair, lint, 
and strings hanging over the weir of the trap. Dipping into the seal 

on one side, and ending in the pipe on the 
other, water will climb through or between 
such matter by capillary force, and will drip by 
gravity into the pipe. This is indicated by 
A the tangled lines at R, Fig. 210, represent¬ 
ing capillary material hanging over the outlet 
neck D of the trap. The trap indicated is for 
a lavatory with horn overflow bowl, V being 
the overflow connection, / the waste, B the 
crown vent, and 0 the outlet. Traps are some¬ 
times locally vented at V. 

Materials forming a porous coating on the 
inner walls of the trap through chemical action 

which Provision is Made for or otherwise, are now and then responsible for 
Flushing and Cleaning Off- ,, , » , , , . „ ... 

set vent whenever Neces- the loss ol water-seal by action oi a capillary 
sary. „ " r J 

nature. I he shape ot a trap may favor the 
accumulation of matter that will lead to capillary loss of seal. 
This is one reason why the plain, open-wall, cylindrical-bore traps 
are best. It is found that no matter how the trap is shaped, its 
surface is, as a rule, not used except at the points which conform 
to the simplest, most direct course—as before said. Other shapes, 
then, present needless fouling surface and space for accumulation 
of matter that interferes with the proper service of the trap. De¬ 
parture from the shape mentioned is necessary to secure an unvented 
trap that cannot be siphoned. Any trap that must necessarily 
be connected so as to put the air of the sewer side against the gasket 
of the clean-out cap, should not be used. 

A difficulty common to venting the general run of plumbing 


Floor 



































PLUMBING 


199 


fixtures, is presented by the fact that to erown-vent the trap prohibits 
sufficient immediate vertical rise of the crown vent to get above the 
fixture overflow-level, without making an offset in the vent, which, in 
case of stoppage of the waste, favors choking of the vent in the offset by 
matter floated into it as a consequence of the stoppage. A plan 
providing for flushing of the vent at will, is shown in Fig. 211, a sanitary 
tee branch being placed in the vent above the level of the sink or 
lavatory back, as shown at A, and closed by nickel-plated trap-screw 
cover B at the face of the finished walk In this way, by removing 
cover B, a wire can be run through to the trap-screw clean-out, and 
the offset portion thus cleaned; and, if necessary, it can be flushed by 
injecting water at B with a hose or funnel. 


TOOLS USED IN PLUMBING 



Fig. 212. Drift Plug 
or Pin. 


Some of the tools used in executing pipe work will now be briefly 
described. Of the lead-pipe tools, Fig. 212 is a drift plug or pin used 
for removing accidental dents from, and rounding 
up, lead waste pipe after it has been coiled for 
shipment. It can be used only when the pipe is 
detached and comparatively straight. The plug 
is greased, and is forced through with a piece 
of gas pipe with a cap on the driving end. 

These plugs are made in various lengths, for all 

sizes of pipe, generally with a slight taper. Box¬ 
wood is best for the purpose, but dogwood and 
even softer woods are used. Three to five plugs 
constitute a set for one size pipe; the smallest 
being at least J inch less than the diameter of 
the pipe, so that, when the plug of the exact 
diameter has worn so that it is too small, one of 
the smaller plugs for the next size larger, used to 
begin the removal of the dents, may be employed 
instead. After a pipe is in place, there is scarcely 

Fig. 2i3. Tampion or any easy way to remove a dent, except by sol- 
“Turn-Pin ”• * * * 

dering a strong piece of strap solder to the lowest 
place and gradually pulling the dent out, keeping it warm with the 
torch so that the lead will give easily. 
















200 


PLUMBING 


Fig. 213 is a tampion —generally called turn-pin by plumbers, 
because it is turned after each stroke of the hammer, so as to insure 
swelling the end of the pipe uniformly. The turning is necessary 
because the pins become somewhat oval while seasoning. The heart 
of the wood is seldom in the center of the pin, and the shrinkage 

therefore is not equal toward the 
center. These pins are made of 
boxwood, with various tapers ac¬ 
cording to the work for which they 
are designed. 

Fig. 214 is an expanding device 
for enlarging holes in drum-traps 
and for aiding in preparing the re¬ 
ceiving end of the pipe, much in the same way as the turn-pin, be¬ 
fore described, does. 

Fig. 215 is a tap-borer. It is made for boring the openings in 
traps and waste pipes, and for reaming out the ends of supply when 
preparing for wipe-joints. Its work is seldom true, and the turn-pin 
is used for finishing. The plumber’s rasp plays an important part 
in the preparation for joints, especially in preparing the spigot end. 

Fig. 216 is a bending iron, used for straightening the ends of pipe 



Fig. 214. Expanding Device for 
Enlarging Holes. 





Fig. 217. Ordinary Shave-Hook. 


and enlarging holes made by the tap-borer, generally performing in 
a satisfactory way the work described in connection with Fig. 214. 

Fig. 217 is a shave-hook of the type generally used on regular 
work. Lead tarnishes quickly; and in preparing joints, it is necessary 
to scrape clean the portion to which it is intended the solder shall 






























































PLUMBING 


201 



218 


Shave-Hook with Bent Shank, 
for Use in Corners and Other 
Inconvenient Places. 


adhere. The shave-hook is used for this purpose. To prevent 
reoxidation before use, joint cleanings must be immediately covered 
with tallow, lard, or sperm candle. The acid in sperm candle grease 
will cause solder to adhere where 
not intended, if one is not very 
careful. 

On new lead, soiling is neces¬ 
sary, regardless of the kind of flux 
used. The whole end of the pipe 
or other surface about a joint is 
soiled usually to a distance of four 
inches for wiping purposes, before pi 
making the cleaning. Plumber’s 
soil consists of glue and lampblack, 

a little glue being dissolved in water, and lamp black added to make 
the mixture about the consistency of cream or thicker, the whole 
being boiled to incorporate the glue thoroughly. Soil should be laid 
on hot, with a brush. The surface to which it is applied must be 

free of grease and dirt, or it 
will not stick. 

Sheet lead is generally 
more or less greasy, no mat¬ 
ter how clean and bright it 
looks, because tallow is used 

Fig. 219. Shave-Hook with Special Blade for Clean- as a lubricator when rolling 
ing Seam Edges, etc. . , ± 

into sheets at the factory. 
New sheet lead should therefore be well rubbed with dry chalk, and 
dusted clean before soiling. Good soil should take a slight polish 
by rubbing with the hand after it is dried on the pipe. If it rubs off, 

= ~ n 





Fig. 220. Copper Bit or “Soldering Iron. 


Fig. 221. ftatchet Iron, 


there is not enough glue; if it. cracks or peels or checks while drying, 
too much glue has been used. 

Fio\ 218 is a shave-hook with bent shank, convenient for cleaning 
in corners or other inconvenient places. 






















2 02 


PLUMBING 



Fig. 222. 


Round Iron. 


Fig. 219 is a shave-hook with special blade, with recessed edges 
of different lengths and depths, intended for cleaning tank-seam edges, 
etc. 

Fig. 220 is a copper bit, generally called a soldering iron. It is 

;n . of the same pattern as used by 
tinners. 

Fig. 221 is a hatchet iron, being 
distinctly a plumber’s tool. It is 
adapted to soldering tacks on lead 
pipe and for making s.eams, also for other uses peculiar to the 
plumber’s trade. It will revolve on the handle. 

With the exception of Fig. 222, all soldering bolts used by plumb¬ 
ers are made of copper, because this material absorbs and parts with 
heat rapidly. For zinc work, steel bolts are used for soldering, as it 
is difficult to solder well on zinc with copper, because the copper parts 
with heat so readily as to easily melt the zinc. Fig. 222 is a plumber’s 
round iron, made of iron. These are used in tank-seam work for 
keeping the mass of solder carried before the cloth in a semi-liquid 
condition. A number of these irons are kept hot in the furnace during 
the wiping of seams; and the helper brushes them clean, cools the 
handle, and hands them to the plumber, one at a time, as the iron in 
use becomes too cool to serve the purpose. It would be next to im¬ 
possible to wipe a seam of much length 
without the aid of round irons, because 
it is impracticable to get up heat from 
end to end of the seam at one time. 

The entire contents of a pot is usually 
spit out with a stick or a ladle by the 
time one foot of seam has been wiped. 

The surplus is then massed and kept in 
working condition with round irons 
until the seam is finished or the sur¬ 
plus used, when another pot of solder 
is handled in the same way. When 
meeting a wiped seam, the end first 
wiped is covered with chalk, and the finishing end of the seam wiped 
up to it; and then, without unnecessarily disturbing or working over 
the solder on the chalked portion, the solder is massed over 



Fig. 223. 


Wiping Cloth. 









































PLUMBING 


203 


the junction of the seam, made thoroughly hot and workable at 
all points, and the seam wiped to a finish, the chalk preventing the 
melted solder above it from adhering to the solder beneath. If this 
is well done, there will be no evidence of the meeting place when the 
loose solder is removed and the chalk cleaned off. 

Fig. 223 is a wiping cloth. These are made in various sizes— 
from 2 inches wide by 2h inches long for wiping small flange joints, 




Fig. 221. Basin Wrench. 


Fig. 225. Wrench for Polished Brass and 
Nickel-Plated Pipe. 


up to 5 by (3 inches for getting up the heat on large horizontal joints. 
They are of moleskin cloth or a good quality of bed-ticking. From 9 to 
10 thicknesses of bed-ticking is required, according to the size of the 
cloth, to keep it from heating through so quickly as to annoy the 
plumber by overheating the fingers before the joint is finished. Some 
plumbers like one material best, and some the other, according to the 
contour of joint they are in the habit of wiping. The moleskin cloth 
is the stiffest and is generally preferred for round joints; but it is 
somewhat unwieldy for either supply or waste pipe hianch joints. 
These, when wiped with a swell in the neck as well as on the side, 

are difficult to make with mole¬ 
skin. Neither material wipes well 
when the cloth is new, because 
lint and loose fibers gather solder, 
which scratches the surface and 
mars the finishing wipe. To get rid of these, the cloth is singed, 
soiled, greased, and rubbed on a board to press the fibers down and 
pack the filling about them so as to keep them out of the way as 
much as possible until removed by usage. New cloths, until they 
are thoroughly broken in, are employed on ground work and other 

joints that will not be exposed to view. 

Fig. 224 is a basin wrench, used for tightening and loosening 

basin-faucet couplings and lock-nuts, there being not enough room 
when the goods are in place to use wrenches of the ordinary kind. 



Fitr. 22G. Three-Wheel Pipe-Cutter. 
























204 


PLUMBING 


Fig. 225 is a special wrench for screwing up polished brass and 
nickel-plated pipe, the finish of which would be marred by a common 
wrench. Friction swivels, with link, for each size of pipe, are 
furnished with the wrench. In use, the gripping power of the swivel 
is proportional to the pull on the handle; and the grip necessary to 
turn the pipe, as it becomes tighter and tighter when screwed up, is 
increased regularly, without attention, by the natural increase of 
force on the handle. There are several kinds of wrenches used for 
the same purpose. The one shown will do its utmost on the shortest 
piece of pipe it is possible to apply a wrench to. 

Fig. 226 is a three-wheel jn'pe-cuttcr, with a hinged block carrying 
one wheel in a way that makes it possible to cut many sizes of pipe 
with one tool. Three-wheel cutters are handy to cut pipe off when in 
close quarters, as the work can be done without rotating the tool 
around the pipe, a travel of the cutter handle through an arc of about 
120 degrees being sufficient to cover the entire circumference of 
the pipe with the wheels. Three-wheel cutters raise the burr on the 
outside of the pipe, which in a great measure obviates the necessity 
of reaming the ends to get the full nominal bore area, as the scrimp 
stock from which the ordinary merchant’s pipe of to-day is made gives 
an actual interior diameter considerably more than the nominal, and 
the stock burred inward with a three-wheel cutter is just about equal 
in its reduction of the bore to the difference between the actual and 
nominal inside diameters. On full-weight pipe of proper outsid 
diameter, the burr raised outside is very annoying to the fitter when 
new, close-fitting guides are in use, because it necessitates filing off 
the burr to some extent before the guide of the thread-cutting stock 
will slip over the end. On the other hand, with scrimp stock, where 
the outside diameter of the pipe is generally somewhat less than 
standard, the burr often constitutes the only portion of the thread 
that has a sharp top and bottom, which is necessary at some point in 
the thread to insure a tight joint. With worn dies and those of poor 
design, the outside burr acts in favor of starting the die without undue 
labor—a point of material advantage so far as labor is concerned 
when cutting threads on pipe of sizes smaller than those for which 
lead-screw die-stocks are furnished. 

Other forms of pipe-cutters, with solid back and one wheel, or 
one wheel and two loose rollers, are made, the latter rolling the stock 





PLUMBING 


205 


inward and making the burr so heavy that it should be reamed out 
in every instance. The wheel and roller cutters are used probably 
more than any other. 

In connection with cutting iron pipe, some reference should be 
made to 'pipe-threading dies, of which there are many makes, not all 
worthy of use. It is generally admitted that 
careless and incompetent handling and the general 
abuse to which pipe dies are subjected by the gen¬ 
eral run of pipe fitters, are largely responsible for 
the poor work turned out and the generally dis¬ 
couraging service obtained from such tools. But 
with mild-steel pipe, which does not run at all 
uniform in hardness, and which is more unsatis¬ 
factory in every way to work than is the genuine 
wrought-iron pipe, it is necessary to employ good Fig. 227. ^ umged pipe- 
and well-designed dies in order to avoid extra labor 
and expense and to produce creditable results in thread-cutting. The 
rake and form of the die must be suitable to the kind of material to be 
cut; and it is economy to purchase modern dies designed with this 
point in view, and then to give them the same treatment that would be 
gladly accorded fine machinery of any other type. 

Fig. 227 is a hinged pipe-vise. The upper jaw and frame are 
reversible so that the vise can be thrown open or closed to the right 
or left as required. The vise has a gravity pawl A, which drops into 
place automatically. A clutch at either side will engage the pawl 
when the vise is fastened to either the right or the left side of a post. 

A verv desirable feature of the hinged vise is that pipe having fittings 

«/ 




which will not pass through the frame at all can be quickly put in 
or taken out with no undue opening or closing of die screw, by simply 
lifting the pawl and swinging the vise back on the hinge. 

Fi<>\ 228 represents a pair of old-fashioned chain-tongs, which 
may bemused on any size of pipe the chain will reach around. There 























































206 


PLUMBING 


are other types, with double jaws, with chain hinged in center, which 
can be used either wav, and which are more convenient. 

Pipe wrenches are used for small sizes. Steel-handle wrenches 
are coming into use on large sizes. Fig. 229 shows a pipe wrench 
with wood handle, for small work. The jaw is opened or closed 
by rotating the knurled thumb-nut g. 

Fig. 230 illustrates a plumber’s gasoline furnace, adapted to 
heating solder pots and copper bolts. The gasoline supply for the 
blast passes through A A, and is provided with valve II and clean-out 
plug /. The lower end of the supply extends nearly to the bottom of 
the reservoir. The gasoline passes through coil E, which is partially 

filled with wire, us¬ 
ually a scrap of 
small wire cable, to 
prevent flame from 
running back into 
the reservoir, and 
issues from a single 
small hole at F, 
which is turned so 
that the flame will 
A impinge on the coil. 
Air-pressure on top 
of the gasoline in 
the reservoir is nec- 

essarv to make a 
«/ 

blast. The air-cock is shown at G. For ordinary purposes, sufficient 
pressure can be obtained by blowing air in the hose at C with the 
lungs; but for a strong blast, a bidb containing check-valves, shown at 
D, is used to increase the pressure. The filling screw is at B. 

To light the furnace, valve II is opened and some of the gasoline 
allowed to play on the coil, from which it falls back into the bottom 
of cup K. When about two tablespoonfuls have reached the cup, 
close II, and light the gasoline through one of the holes in K. When 
it has burned out, the coil will be hot enough to vaporize the gasoline 
as it passes through it; and a gas instead of a liquid then issues from 
F in the form of a blast, which increases in intensity as E becomes 
hotter. Any tendency to produce more gas than necessary merely 



Rubber Bulb 


Fig. 230. Plumber’s Gasoline Furnace. 



























































PLUMBING 


207 


increases the pressure and the force of the blast. T he strength of the 
blast can be regulated by valve II. As the air is forced into the 
reservoir above the gasoline, one pumping keeps the furnace in work¬ 
ing order until the low¬ 
ering of the gasoline level 
has provided so much 
room that the pressure 
of the expanded air is 
not sufficient to maintain 
the blast. Then it be¬ 
comes necessary to pump 
in more air, or to replen¬ 
ish the gasoline and again 
establish the pressure 
over it as described. 

Fig. 231 is a blast 
torch used by plumbers 
for warming large joints, 
melting off old joints, 
heating soil-pipe hubs, 
thawing frozen water-pipe, etc. The principle of operation is the 
same as that of the furnace. A is a hand-pump for establishing 
the air-pressure; B, the air-pipe; and C, the air-cock connecting the 
pump to the top of the reservoir G. D is the filling screw, and II 
the supply valve to burner. The gas issues from a single orifice 

within the hood F. E is a gasoline cup 
used to heat the burner in order to start the 
blast, and corresponds to cup K of the fur¬ 
nace. 

The thawing steamer , Fig. 232, is made 
of heavy copper and adapted to fit the bowl 
of a plumber’s blast furnace. A is the safety- 
valve, D the reservoir, and B the valve con¬ 
necting with the steam space. For use, the 
reservoir is filled about three-quarters full of 
water, and heated to steaming point. The steam is conveyed through 
a hose C, and injected into the end of the frozen pipe. As the ice 
melts and the water flows out, the hose is pushed further and further 




Fig. 231. Plumber’s Blast Torch. 































208 


PLUMBING 


into the pipe, until the ice is all melted out of the frozen portion. This 
is an admirable way to thaw water-pipe frozen underground, within 
partition walls, and in other inaccessible places. 

There are numerous other tools used by the trade, not only 
peculiar to the plumber’s needs, but used also in common by work¬ 
men in other lines. All the data necessary concerning them can be 
had by reference to catalogues. 

METHOD OF WIPING JOINTS 

Watching somebody wipe joints, a~clear description of how it 
is done, a thorough knowledge of the theoretical process, and 
acquaintance with the traits and qualities of the materials used, are 
essential; but practice in the art of wiping joints has more to do 
with making one proficient than has mere practice to do with 
proficiency in any other line of work. A Hottentot would succeed 
about as well in engrossing a set of resolutions, upon his first intro¬ 
duction to English and a pen and ink, as the most skilful person in 
other lines would in the work of wiping a joint at the first attempt. 
One may give the closest attention to the manual operations of making 
a thousand joints when the cloth and ladle are in the hands of someone 
else, and yet fail to remember the how and wherefore of a hundred 
movements absolutely necessary to success. Some general remarks 
are therefore all that will be of real benefit, to any one previous to 
practice. 

The same general result must be attained under a great variety 
of conditions, regardless of position or size or character of the pipe. 
The temperature and composition of the solder; the temperature of the 
weather; the kind, size, and position of the joint, etc., must be 
reckoned with in every instance, and each modifies the proceeding 
more or less at some stage. 

Before commencing to wipe a joint, one should be positive that 
it is firmly set; that the cleaning is well done and of proper length; 
that the junction of the ends is well made, so that solder will not run 
through into the pipe; that the surrounding edges are well soiled, 
pasted, or otherwise protected, so that the solder will not adhere except 
at the cleaning; that the pipe is dry inside and outside; that no undue 
current of air is passing through it; that there is enough solder in the 





PLUMBING 


209 


pot to get up the heat and do the work; that the solder is hot enough; 
and that the cloth is in good condition. 

To prepare for a joint, square the end of the pipe; see that the 
bore is true; rasp the spigot end evenly down to the bore, a little more 
obtuse to the outside surface than it is intended to make the boring or 
opening of the receiving end to that of the interior surface. Always 
rasp against the end of the pipe, so that no burr is made on the inside 
and so that none of the raspings get into the pipe. If the receiving- 
end is to be opened with a turn-pin, the rasping on the spigot end 
should be made according to the taper of the turn-pin, and the end 
should be rasped down only partially, leaving stock enough to stretch 
when the end is expanded with the turn-pin. If the receiving end is 
to be opened with a tap-borer, then the spigot end must be rasped 
down in accordance with the angle of its boring. A coarse rasp will do 
to rough the work with; but one of fine teeth should be used to do the 
finishing so that the shave-hook will remove its marks. When the 
ends are thus prepared, soil them back three or four inches; and 
when dry, clean with a shave-hook, cutting rather deeply at the 
beginning of the cleaning so that there will be a slight thickness of 
solder at the edges of the joint; otherwise it would be impossible to 
wipe the edges clean and perfect, because the feather edge will chill 
too quickly. Before setting the joint, the tip edge of the spigot end 
and the bottom of the receiving end should be soiled, so that the two 
soiled parts will come together when the pipe is in place. This keeps 
solder from sweating through into the pipe. 

The length of cleanings does not increase with the diameter of 
the pipe. The idea is to have the solder contact surface in proportion 
to the strength or purpose of the pipe. A round joint on f-inch pipe 
and one on 8-inch soil pipe should be about the same length—2 to 2\ 
inches. On 4-inch soil pipe, the average width of a joint is about H 
inches. When the pipes to be joined are of different metals, it is best 
to increase the length of the joint somewhat, or extend the tinning. 
For instance, on copper pipe—especially for distillery use—some 
kind of galvanic or corrosive action takes place which destroys the 
union between the solder and the metal of the pipe. It is therefore 
usual, on distillery work, to tin across the end of the pipe and back 
on the interior, in addition to the regular joint surface outside, making 





210 


PLUMBING 


the tinning continuous, as its length and continuity seem to determine 
the period of time the joint will last. 

Difference in the ratios of expansion, causing a shearing action, 
appears to have much to do with the life of joints when lead and brass, 
lead and copper, or lead and iron are joined together by wiping. This 
is noticed more on water-back connections than elsewhere in the 
regular line of plumbing. When lead is joined to lead, the difference 
in the coefficients of expansion for the mass of solder and the metal 
of the pipe with which it is in contact, is so slight that little trouble is 
experienced in this way. The contour of the joint may be decided 
by allowing the thickness of solder at the middle to equal one and 
a-half times the thickness of the Avail of the pipe. This holds good for 
supply pipe where the solder used is 40 to 45 per cent good tin and 
55 to 60 per cent pure lead. On thin wall soil and waste pipe, or 
where coarser solder is used, twice the thickness of the \\ r all is better. 
The solder forming the joint must be patted up compactly before 
wiping. 

The beginner should keep the solder hot, leaving the pot in the 
furnace while practicing, so that he can put back and re-melt the cold 
batches from time to time, and continue to pour and re-wipe without 
loss of time. He can do no better than to try to imitate the motions 
of those who know how, whether he yet fully comprehends the reasons 
or not. Practice will soon teach him a few points which words cannot 
explain to the inexperienced. Lead and tin, not being of the same 
specific gravity, stratify more or less when melted, the tin rising to 
the top. For this reason, the molten mass should be skimmed and 
well stirred before dipping out any to wipe with. Never stir solder 
until ready to use it. Let the novice take the cloth in the left hand, 
holding it forward so as to cover the tips of the fingers, and take a 
ladle of solder in the right. Hold the cloth under the cleaning and 
drop the solder drop by drop upon the cleaning at different points, 
gauging the number, rapidity, and size of drops according to the heat 
of the solder. A single drop of solder too hot, may melt a hole 
through a thin v^all pipe after it is pretty well warmed up. Keep the 
ladle moving so that the drops will fall in different places. When 
some solder gathers on the cloth, put it up on top again, and drop 
solder on it. When more runs down on the cloth, hold it against 
the bottom of the pipe to warm the bottom; and continue to drop 






PLUMBING 


211 


solder from the ladle, more particularly now about the edges and 
even extending the pouring two inches or so out on the soiled part of 
the pipe on each edge, which will help to warm the pipe and pro- 
\ide heat in the pipe adjoining the edges of the joint to help keep the 
joint hot enough to wipe the edges clean before they chill. 

Do little rubbing or passing on the edges. Let the solder stack 
up, dig some out of the top of the mass with the ladle to temper fresh 
soldei from the pot, so that pouring a liberal stream instead of drops 
will do no damage. When the pipe has absorbed enough heat to 
allow the cold masses at the edges to be lifted easily, pass the mass 
around a little so as to tin the cleaning. Keep plenty of solder on the 
cleaning, and let the edges take care of themselves until the last. 

When there is a good mass of solder on the cleaning, and the 
edges are thick and mushy, do extra pouring on the edges to get them 
thoroughly hot, and then place the solder on the cloth upon the pipe. 
If it is hot enough, the solder will tend to run off at either side again; 
but it must be caught and pushed up. Then, with the aid of the 
thumb or an extra cloth in the right hand, push the solder around 
keeping plenty at the bottom, and get it patted up compactly into an 
egg shape with thick edges extending over on the soiled part, as 
quickly as possible. It may be necessary to pass or rotate the mass 
so as to get the cooler solder on the top to prevent it from dripping 
from the bottom. Experience will teach one how to mix the over¬ 
heated portion with the balance so as to have the solder approximately 
at uniform temperature at all points by the time the joint is patted up. 

The joint roughly shaped as described would hold water quite 
as well as after it is finished; but the appearance is bad. 

Clean the edges first by pulling the cloth around, bearing down 
on one edge at a time. Then spread the middle and index fingers so 
as to let the cloth sag between them, and finish the joint by pulling 
the cloth around while bearing on both edges at the same time, keeping 
hold of the cloth by pinching it to the palm of the hand with the thumb. 
Beginners usually draw the cloth lengthwise of the joint to cut off 
the surplus carried around on the cloth by the finishing wipe; but 
an experienced person can finish the wiping while the solder is yet 
hot enough to sweat-in the cloth marks of the final wipe. 

If the joint is wiped hot enough, and the heat evenly distributed, 
the tin spots on the surface when the joint is cold will be evenly dis- 








212 


PLUMBING 


tributed over the surface. If the pipe is hot enough, and the mass 
of solder too cold at any point, the friction of the cloth will cause the 
whole mass to rotate on the pipe. If too hot on the bottom, it will 
bleed the mass by dripping at the bottom. If too cold on top or at any 
other point, a very poor shape will result—if, indeed, one is able to 
wipe the joint at all. If the solder is fine, and a single wipe is made 
after the solder has fallen below the proper temperature, the surface 
will be covered with briar-like projections. If the solder contains 
any zinc, it will be brittle and work like cornmeal dough, and drip 
at the bottom when finished, if finished at all. All brass goods con¬ 
tain more or less zinc in alloy with copper, and it is best never to tin 
brass in wiping solder, as the zinc will melt out and ruin the solder. 



Fig. 233. Butt Sweat 
Joint. 



Fig. 234.. Blow 
Joint. 



Fig. 235. Copper- 
Bit Joint. 



Fig. 236. Round Wiped 
Joint on Small Pipe. 


Many plumbers use two cloths when wiping. To become expert 
with the cloth, it is better to wipe all kinds of joints with one cloth 
only, until thoroughly proficient; then, if a second cloth is found to 
be of real service in some instances, use it. 

A beginner may take every advantage to aid him—such as chok¬ 
ing a pipe to keep cold air from passing through, heating brass or 
copper edges with a torch before wiping, placing a live charcoal on a 
piece of screen wire within the pipe to aid in heating up, wiping large 
joints in sections and meeting the edges by chalking the finished part 
as described in connection with tank seams, etc.—but he should 
never be guilty of making extra joints in order to shirk a difficult 
position. The quickest plan to master this branch of work, is to make 
joints in whatever position they happen to be required, instead of 
trying to arrange an easy way. 


















































































PLUMBING 


213 


^ iped joints should be made wherever practicable; but there are 
several other styles of joints equally serviceable for certain locations. 
Fig. 233 is a butt sweat-joint made by squaring the ends, tinning one 



Fig. 237. Round Joint on Fig. 238. Branch Joint with Fig.239. Branch Joint with 
Large Pipe. Concave Neck. Swell Neck. 


end, and sweating the other to it by heating with a torch. It is the 
weakest joint made, but will at the outset stand any strain or internal 
pressure that the pipe itself will stand. 

Fig. 234 is a blow joint. The only difference between it and the 
copper-bit joint shown in Fig. 235, is that the solder is floated by aid 
of the torch, and it is not so heavy as Fig. 235. The copper-bit joint 
is made with the soldering iron, the solder being melted and floated a 
little at a time until the joint is completed. 



Fig. 240. Double-Branch Cross. Fig. 241. Regular Cross-Joint. 

Fig. 236 is a round wiped joint on f-inch supply pipe. For com¬ 
parison a round joint on 5-inch soil-pipe is shown in Fig. 237. 

Fig. 238 is a supply-pipe branch joint with concave neck. 
































































































































214 


PLUMBING 


Fig. 239 is a supply-pipe branch with swell neck, much more 
difficult to wipe than the style shown in Fig. 238. 

Fig. 240 is a double-branch cross. This style of cross looks well. 



Fig. 242. Angle Cross. 


Fig. 243. Combination Branch and 
Round Joint. 



and is very easy to wipe, because one branch may be wiped at a time 
bv protecting the first with chalk or paste. 

Fig. 241 is a regular cross-joint, more difficult than the double 
branch because there are four edges to take care of at one heat. 

Fig. 242 is an angle cross, more difficult if anything than the 
wiping of Fig. 241. 

Fig. 243 is a combination branch and round joint, sometimes 



Fig. 244. Y-Joint, Used Generally on Fig. 245. Y-Joint on Lead Fig. 246. Common 

Telephone Branch Cables. Waste-Pipe. Flange Joint. 


made where it is most convenient to have a branch joint come at a 
point where two ends of the supply line must also be joined. 

Fig. 244 is a Y-joint. This form of Y is rarely wiped except for 
branch cables on telephone work. Many so-called Y-joints are made 













































































PLUMBING 


215 


at a Y-angle on lead waste-pipe work, as shown in Fig. 245. As a 
general, rule, none of these combination joints are made frequently 
enough of late years to keep a plumber in good practice. A common 
wiped flange joint is shown in Fig. 246. 

An inclined joint can be set easily with two pairs of old dividers 
and two blocks to hold the pipe away from the wall. The table to 
catch what falls, should be a little toward the low side rather than 
centered under the cleaning. To wipe a joint in this position, pour 
well out on the soil, and let it stand without attempting to do much 
with the cloth. Temper the solder from the pot by digging out of the 
stack on the joint, and pour liberally. After the cold edges get 
melting hot next the cleaning, lift them into the pot. Then begin 




SLOCK 

BEHIND 

PIPE 


SPIGOT END 
RECEIVING 


jh / 

'OLD 

DIVIDERS 






PASTEBOARD READY 
TO PUT IN PLACE 


PASTEBOARD 


Fig. 247. Upright Cleaning Ready to Wipe. 


to pass the solder around with 
the cloth. Keep a good mass on 
the pipe. Pat up when hot 
enough, and cut the high edge 
clean first; then the top of the 
low edge. Then make some trial 
wipes, without pulling off any 
solder, to see if the joint is filled 
out to the proper contour all 
around. If not, use the surplus 
to fill the low places; then wipe 
down to the desired shape quickly. 

If the joint takes on any symptoms looking as if it had been stung by 
a bee on the low end at the bottom, cool it quickh v itn \\ ater. 

To protect the wall on a flange joint over new wood wainscoting, 
such as is often made on sink wastes and vents, a large piece of paste¬ 
board should be fitted over the pipe before the end is flanged. A 
blind flange joint requires a lead flange to be tacked to the wall over 
the pipe to support the joint. It is best to fit a lead flange the size 
of the joint in all cases, as less stretching of the pipe end is then 
necessary where the flange is also a union of two pieces of pipe. After 
the joint is finished, the pasteboard can be carefully cut around it and 
removed, leaving the.wall clean. If the flange is to be made over 
marble, the pasteboard keeps the heat from running away from the 
edges, and there is less danger of cracking the marble by heat. 











216 


PLUMBING 


An upright cleaning is shown ready to wipe in Fig. 247. Plain 
upright joints are so easy, and occur so frequently, that the art of 
wiping them is soon mastered. The receiving end should be below 
and should be opened with the turn-pin and rasped off to suit. Its 
lower, inner edge and the tip of the spigot should be soiled. The 
ends should fit well, and the open part taper a little more than the 
spigot. The bulge helps to keep the solder up; and the cup, if well 
cleaned, will make a good joint alone. When wiping, either spit the 
solder on with a stick or pour on the cloth and drift it against the 
cleaning. Keep the mass up. Endeavor to pour solder on solder 
. z instead of on the 

/// / / / / ■*' nit - *. 


amng. 


L e a v e 



^_ 


:u~ 


“nr* ““r 




the bottom ed^e 

o 

alone until the cold 
fringe loosens of its 
own accord. When 
hot, form up 
roughly, high, and 
cut the top edge 
off clean first; then 
drag up the settling 
bottom edge, and 
fill o u t the low 
places; then wipe 
to finish, bearing 
the hardest on the 
upper edge of the 
cloth. The table 

can be made of two pieces of pasteboard as shown. Set it low 



Fig. 248. Wiping an Overhead Joint. 


enough to let the cloth and hand clear what drops when wiping. If 
cold solder surrounds the pipe when finished, melt it apart with the 
copper. 

The overhead joint, shown in Fig. 248, is wiped in the same way 
as though it were on the floor. The position is a trying one, and the 
cloth and ladle are kept in place at a great disadvantage. A stiff cloth 
is best to get the heat with; while a second, more flexible and pre¬ 
viously warmed, can be used in conjunction, to do the shaping and 
wiping. Some heat previously applied with the torch to the edffes 





























PLUMBING 


217 


will shorten the time of getting the heat, and save the wrists and 
fingers from cramp and excessive tiring. Some provision for straight¬ 
ening the line is necessary, if a straight shoot is too high to wipe. 
Sometimes the surplus pipe is snaked into one plane with proper 
incline so that the pipe will drain, and is supported by a shelf. 

THE MAKING OF CALKED JOINTS 

In working cast-iron soil-pipe, frequent cutting, as it is termed, 
is necessary. To do this, all that is required is a hammer, and a cold 
chisel not too sharp. Make a line around the pipe as a guide, to 
insure making the piece the same length at all points. Then begin 
with hammer and chisel, pointing the chisel straight toward the 
center of the pipe and striking it quick, moderate blows, moving the 
chisel a little forward on the line after each blow, so as to make a 
continuous dent all around the pipe. Continue working in the dent 
until the pipe falls apart. The separating of soil pipe in this way 
is not a cutting process at all; it is simply packing the iron down in 
a line until the fiber of the iron is disturbed entirely through the wall, 
or at least sufficiently to wedge the pipe apart. Where the chisel 
strikes, the force tends to make the pipe longer, and the strain thus 
produced wedges it asunder. 

Tools Used in Making Calked Joints. Fig. 249 is a yarning tool, 
the blade being long 
and thin in order to 
reach the bottom of 
the hub. The offset 
in the handle is to keep 
the hand out of the 
way of the pipe when 
using it. The calking 
tool is of the same pat¬ 
tern, with shorter 
blade and heavier. 

For calking and yarn¬ 
ing joints standing 
close together or in a 
corner, special forms are needed. I he corner tools, ns the\ aie 
called, are offset twice—once to keep the hand free of the pipe, 







;.249. Yarn- 
ng Tool. 




Fig. 250. Fig. 251. 

Right and Left “Corner” Tools 
Calking and Yarning. 


for 





























218 


PLUMBING 


and once edgewise, throwing the blade out of alignment both 
ways. The offset part next the blade is curved to the arc of the largest 
pipe it is to be used on, so that the blade will reach down in the hub 
vertically at the back of the joint, while the handle stands free in the 




open space for manipulation with the hand or hammer. These tools 
are necessarily made right and left, as shown in Figs. 250 and 251. 

Another form of right and left calking tool is shown in Fig. 252, 
for use in finishing the joint as described in connection with Fig. 190. 

Joints near the ceiling or in other positions, sometimes have to 
be made in places where regular tools cannot be used. The application 
of a special tool for the purpose is shown in Fig. 253, b being the 

hammer face, which is in position to use the hammer on quite con- 

> 

venientlv. The hammer end a is made extra heavy, not only to 
prevent losing the force of the blow by vibration, but to give it weight 



Fig. 254. Asbestos Joint-Runner, Open and Closed. 


in making effective jerking blows with the hand when pulling the 
yarn in. 

Fig. 254 illustrates a joint-runner made of square asbestos rope, 
with hinged clamp and thumb-screw attached for holding it in place. 





















































PLUMBING 


219 


Theie aie other forms made that are just as good. These are used 
in running horizontal and oblique joints on cast-iron soil-pipe work. 
A fire-clay roll, formed about a strong cord by hand and used just 
damp and soft enough to bend and pinch in place, answers the purpose 
very well, though the weight of the lead, aided by steam bubbles 
formed from the water in the clay, sometimes blows them loose and 
imposes on the plumber the hard task of getting ready to re-run the 
joint, to say nothing of the time lost. 

TESTING PLUMBING 

Peppermint and ether are now but little used to test the tight¬ 
ness of soil and waste pipe. Better methods prevail. When the 
roughing-in work is finished, a water test is applied. The openings 
for fixtures and the outlet being closed, the whole system is filled 
with water, and no further progress permitted until it is water-tight. 
To avoid extra work in taking out defective pipe and fittings, cracked 
hubs, etc., it is best to fill the pipe as installed. Defects of material 
and workmanship are then brought to light at a time when they can 
be remedied at the least expense. 

After the fixtures are set and connections made, a smoke test is 
applied to the completed job before it is passed for actual service. 
Devices for filling the pipe with smoke by burning rags or waste, are 
a part of every shop’s equipment where city ordinances prescribe this 
kind of test. These are called smoke machines, and are moderate 
in cost and simple in operation. The smoke test is made under one 
to two inches’ water-pressure, the pressure being shown by a water- 
gauge on the machine. 

PLUMBING LAWS AND ORDINANCES 

The municipal control of plumbing in the United States dates 
back only about twenty-five years, although some simple regulations 
were in effect in Lowell, Mass., and Providence, R. I., as early as 1878. 
The earliest codes with any claims to completeness took effect in 1SS1. 
The first such rules were made under the authority of general statutory 
provisions which conferred power on local governments to legislate on 
sanitary affairs. It soon became evident, however, that State legis- 
lation was necessary in order to give proper uniformity to the method 






220 


PLUMBING 


of control; and general plumbing laws have now been enacted in more 
than twenty States. 

The application of the police power of the State—which may be 
broadly defined as “The power of promoting the public welfare by 
restraining and regulating the use of liberty and property”—was at 
first questioned when used in this connection. Owing, however, to the 
advances in public opinion regarding these questions of general wel¬ 
fare, it has been settled by numerous decisions that the regulation 
of plumbing construction by competent persons and in accordance with 
well-defined laws of design is a proper function of the Commonwealth. 
A recent authority has said: “The legislation on this subject has 
been the result of evolution, and conditions that were at one time 
tolerated are now recognized, with the growth of knowledge and the 
advance in sanitary science, as dangerous to life and health.” 

The scope of plumbing laws varies in the different States. They 
usually provide in general terms for the establishment of a Plumbing 
Board in each of the larger cities. Such a board generally includes 
at least one master and one journeyman plumber, together with some 
member of the Board of Health, or other city official, whose duties 
bring him closely in touch with plumbing construction. This board 
has authority to examine candidates for licenses as master plumbers 
and for journeymen’s certificates, and to determine their competency 
to conduct the business or to work at the trade. If an applicant is 
not found competent, he is forbidden to do plumbing work. Either 
the board as above constituted, or the Board of Health, is charged 
with the duty of regulating plumbing design; and in most cities, 
ordinances have been framed with this end in view. The method by 
which plumbing shall be controlled is sometimes defined by the State 
law, and is in other cases determined by provisions of the city charter. 

The extent to which regulations and ordinances prescribe the 
types of construction, varies greatly. In the smaller cities, a simple 
regulation comprising a few paragraphs is all that is found necessary. 
In the larger cities, long and complicated ordinances, with many pro¬ 
visions describing in great detail the materials to be used, the method 
of venting, etc., have been framed. The most notable of such ordi¬ 
nances is the comprehensive and consistent system of regulations pre¬ 
pared for the city of Cleveland, Ohio, but not yet (March, 1907) in 
force. This ordinance consists of sixteen titles, with numerous 





PLUMBING 


221 


headings under each title, and is based on a very complete compila¬ 
tion of such regulations in force in the principal cities of this country. 
T3ie great advances in plumbing design and in types of fixtures avail¬ 
able create a necessity from time to time for some adaptation of 
plumbing rules to changed conditions; and, in general, it may be 
said that a set of regulations which has not received material modi¬ 
fication within ten years past, does not prescribe the best methods 
of plumbing construction. 

The jurisdiction under which the control of plumbing inspection 
should be placed—whether with the Department of Health or with the 
Building Bureau—has been a subject of some controversy. The 
enforcement of the earlier plumbing rules was entrusted to the sani¬ 
tary authorities; and the supervision of plumbing is, in many of the 
larger cities, still in the hands of the Health Department. There has 
been, however, in the last few years, in connection with the more 
detailed study of features of plumbing design, a well-defined feeling 
that the questions of greatest importance fall within the province of 
the Sanitary Engineer, and may be logically treated by that depart¬ 
ment which has control of other details of building construction. In 
New York and Boston, as well as in some smaller cities, jurisdiction 
over the Plumbing Bureau is placed with the Department of Buildings. 

Although the extension of plumbing supervision to those cities 
where it has not previously been in existence has been rapid, there 
still remain a number of large cities and many smaller ones which 
have neither regulations governing plumbing nor inspectors to super¬ 
vise plumbing construction; and in many States no movement has 
yet been made to frame general laws upon this subiect. 































% 
































INDEX 



A 

Angle cross. 

Anti-siphon traps. 

Argand burner. 

Asbestos incandescent grate. 

Atlas trap.. ; . 

B 

Bag trap. 

Basin faucets. 

Basin wrench.. 

Bath fittings. 

Bathtubs... 

Bat’s-wing burner.. 

.Bending iron. 

Bidet fixtures.. 

Bidet jet.. 

Blast torch. 

Blow joint. 

Brass ferrules. 

Broad irrigation of sewage. 

Broiler. 

Bunsen burner. 

Burners 

Argand.. 

bat’s-wing. 

Bunsen. 

incandescent. 

single-jet. 

union-jet. 

Butt sweat-joint. 

C 

Calked joints, making of. 

Calking tools. 

Carburetted air. 

Carburetters. 

Catch-basin.. 

Cesspool for septic treatment of sewage.. 

Chemical precipitation of sewage. 

Clough burner. 


Page 

214 

175 

127 

134 

194 


192 

27 

203 

13 

9 

127 

200 

19 

18 

207 

213 

186 

157 

132 

129 


127 

127 

129 

127 

126 

127 

213 


217 

217 

134 

138 

154 

143 

156 

137 






































224 


INDEX 


Page 

Combined hopper and trap closet. 39 

Cooking by gas.•. 131 

Copper-bit joint. 213 

D 

Deep-seal traps. 192 

Double cock and connected waste and overflow. 13 

Drift plug or pin. 199 

Drinking fountains. 20 

F 

Filters. 104 

Fixtures, plumbing. 9 

bathtubs. 9 

bidet fixtures. 19 

drinking fountains. 20 

foot-bath. 19 

laundry trays. 35 

lavatories. 21 

shower baths. 15 

sinks. 29 

sitz baths. 17 

urinals. 53 

water-closets. 37 

Flange joint. 215 

Flashings. 167 

Flask or Atlas trap. I 94 

Flush fittings of open-tank. 45 

Flushing devices. 152 

Foot-bath. 19 

French bath. 9 

Fuel gas or water gas. 134 

G 

Garden irrigation plant for treatment of sewage. 141 

Gas for cooking. 231 

Gas heaters. 203 

Gas piping. 11S 

Gas stoves. 232 

Gasolene gas. 234 

Gasoliers. 230 

Globes. 231 

Grease-traps. 34 

H 

Hatchet iron. 202 

Heater and tank, capacity of. 92 

Hinged pipe-vise. 205 

Hot-water storage. go 

House connections for sewers. 253 
















































IXDEX 


225 


House drainage system. 

flashings. 

floor joints. 

foul-air outlet. 

fresh-air inlet. 

intercepting trap in cellar.... 

local ventilation. 

slope for soil and waste lines. 

soil pipe and fittings. 

soil-pipe joints. 

soil stacks. 

soil and waste pipe, sizes of.. 

trap ventilation. 

House tank, essential connections 

House water supply. 

Hydrant. 

Hydraulic ram. 

Hydraulic water-lifts. 


I 

Incandescent burners. 

Instantaneous water-heaters. 

Intermittent filtration of sewage. 


J 

Jet-siphon closet. 

Joints, method of wiping. 


Kitchen sinks 


K 


L 

Laundry trays.' 

Lavatories. 

Lavatory trap. 

Lead drum or pot trap.• • • •;. 

Lead-supply tank installation, distributing lines of 

Lead used in plumbing.. 

Lift pump. 

Liver spray. 

Local vent.... 

M 

Manholes. 

Mechanical seal trap. 

Mechanical straining of sewage. 


Page 

160 

167 

188 

162 

163 

161 

178 

177 
182 
186 
175 

178 
169 
111 

55 

80 

70 

77 


127 

104 

158 


41 

208 


29 


35 

21 

194 

193 

111 

.1 

73 

18 

178 


152 

195 

156 


O 


Open-wall trap. 
Overhead joint. 


193 

216 









































INDEX 


226 


P 


Pipe-cutters. 

Pipe-threading dies. 

Pipe wrenches. 

Plumbing fixtures. 

Plumbing laws and ordinances. 

Plumbing tools. 

Pneumatic siphon closet. 

Pneumatic water-supply apparatus. 

Porcelain and iron sinks. 

Porcelain recessed drinking fountain 

Pumps. 

lift. 

methods of operating. 

gasolene engines. 

hot-air engines. 

hydraulic water-lifts. 

windmills. 

suction. 


Page. 

204 

205 

206 
9 

219 

199 

39 

79 

32 

20 

73 

73 

76 

76 

76 

77 
76 
73 


R 

Range closets.-. 49 

Reservoirs. 94 

Roll-rim sinks. SO 

Roman baths. 12 

Round wiped joint.V.,. 213 

Rubber mats.<. 31 


S 

Sanitary science, definition of. 1 

Sanitary sewerage system. 147 

Sedimentation.. ... 156 

Septic tank.. 141 

Septic treatment of sewage. 146 

Service pipes. si 

Sewage, definition of. 155 

Sewage disposal, method of. 141 

Sewage farming. 157 

Sewage purification.*. . 155 

broad irrigation. 157 

chemical precipitation. 156 

intermittent filtration.•.. 15S 

mechanical straining. 156 

sedimentation. 156 

sub-surface irrigation..'.. 157 

Sewer design and construction.... 151 

combined system. 153 

depth of sewers below surface. 153 

flushing devices. 152 



















































INDEX 


227 


Sewer design and construction 

grades. 

house connections. 

manholes. 

pumping stations. 

size, shape, and materials.. 

storm overflows. 

tidal chambers. 

underdrains.*. 

ventilation. 

Sewer grades. 

Shave-hook. 

Shower baths. 

Single-jet burner. 

Sinks. 

Siphon hole. 

Siphonage. 

Sitz baths. 

Slop sink. 

Soil pipe and fittings. 

Soil-pipe joints. 

Soil stacks. 

Soil and waste pipe, sizes of. . 

Soldering iron. 

Storm overflows. 

Sub-surface irrigation of sewage 
Suction pump... 


Page 


152 

153 
152 
155 

154 

154 

155 

152 

153 
152 
200 

15 

126 

29 

95 

189 

17 

34 

182 

186 

175 

178 

202 

154 
157 

73 


gas pipes, maximum run and number of burners for. 125 

offsets, data relating to. 85 

water pressure, drop in, due to friction, etc. 59 

water pressure in lbs , per sq. in. for elevations. 58 

Tampion or turn-pin. 200 

Tap-borer. 200 

Temperature regulation. 99 

Testing plumbing.:. 219 

Thawing steamer. 207 

Tidal chambers.'. 155 

Tools used in plumbing. 199 

basin wrench. 203 

bending iron. 200 

blast torch. 207 

drift plug or pin. 199 

gasolene furnace. 206 

hatchet iron. 202 

hinged pipe-vise. 205 

pipe-cutter. 204 



















































228 


INDEX 


Page 

Tools used in plumbing 

pipe-threading dies. 205 

pipe wrenches.*.. 206 

round iron. 202 

shave-hook. 200 

soldering iron. 202 

tampion or turn-pin. 2C0 

tap-borer.. ... 200 

thawing steamer. 207 

wiping cloth. 203 

Top nozzle supply and waste. 14 

Total lift, definition of. 75 

Trap ventilation. 169 

Traps. 188 

bag. 192 

deep-seal. 192 

flask... 194 

loss of traps seals. 196 

open-wall. 192 

pot. 193 

siphonage. 189 

water-seal. 191 

Traps seals, loss of... 196 

U 

U nderdrains. 152 

Union-jet burner. ....'. 127 

Urinals. 53 

V 

Velocity. 56 

Ventilation of sewers. 153 

W 

Washer and hydrant. 80 

Wash-out closet. 39 

Water-closets. 37 

combined hopper and trap. 39 

jet-siphon. 41 

pneumatic siphon. 39 

range. 49 

wash-out. 39 

Water motors. 106 

Water-seal traps. 191 

Water supply to fixtures. 86 

W’ater supply, types of. 61 

Water system, direct supply. 84 

Windmills. 76 

Wiping joints, method of. s . i . 208 

Wooden sinks. 31 

































































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